TRIBAL LIFESTYLE
|
PACIFIC NORTHWEST COAST
|
|
Terms ‘Iroquois’ and ‘Iroquoian’ are distinct terms. NOTE: There is no such thing as a tribe called Iroquois. It is simply an 'umbrella' term used to describe a number of tribes with similar lifestyles and languages.
LANGUAGES of individual tribes were closely related and, although not identical, mutually intelligible. The greatest similarities existed between the Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga and Seneca. The Huron-Wendat and Mohawk languages are part of the Iroquoian linguistic group. LOCATION: Originally lived in the Eastern Woodlands, an area that extended from the land south of Lake Ontario, along the Mohawk River, and westward to the Finger Lakes and Genessee River, in what is now New York State; The land was rich with hardwood forests, soils and climate capable of supporting the only Indigenous agricultural peoples. The Haudenosaunee people were rooted to the land and designated each person an important function as the seasons changed. Women held a powerful place in the tribes and were the caretakers of the agricultural cycle, and responsible for the day-to-day governance of the tribe; women made baskets/clothing, cared for the children and Elders and made most of the day-to-day decisions. Men were hunters and warriors; providers and protectors of the community who executed the decisions made by women.; MATRIARCHAL CLAN SYSTEM. Clan Mothers, the leaders of the clan, selected the council members, or chiefs, and had veto power over the men's decisions. Women not only managed the political life of the Haudenosaunee, they, owned all property, determined kinship. Marriage: Man moved into Woman’s longhouse. CLANS divided into three categories:
Air:
Hawk, Snipe, Heron FOOD: Beans, corn, squash, pumpkins. Corn soup an everyday meal; fish and meat also included. A wide variety of wild berries, nuts, wild onions, mushrooms, greens, completed the diet; Hunting less importance to diet as it was to supply hide for clothing. Deer was the principal game; bear and beaver secondary. CLOTHING: Animals hides, principally, deer. Men wore long-sleeve hide shirts, breech cloth; leggings, moccasins; Women - hide dresses, moccasins. Clothing often elaborately beaded.
WARFARE - Ruthless warriors, and very skilled. They were quiet warriors perfectly at home in their woodland environment. Without moving a leaf on a tree, or snapping a twig, they could move through the forest in almost total quiet; quarry would not know until the warrior was right beside them. Mohawk warriors had an almost mystical reputation. Prior to the establishment of the Confederacy (see below), warfare was widespread and their skill was much coveted by British during the war with the United States in the 1700s. GIFTED IN PEACE: The Haudennosaunne Confederacy. Five nations established a peace treaty which led to the formation of one of the world's earliest democracies. This society gave rise to great orators, like the Onondaga, Hiawatha, and noble leaders, such as the Seneca, Cornplanter, who was rewarded with a tract of land along Pennsylvania's Allegheny River for his diplomatic efforts with the fledgling government of the American Colonies. Benjamin Franklin was so impressed that he based the Declaration of Independence on the Confederacy's principles. The Mohawk (People of the Flint) have historically guarded the eastern door of a symbolic longhouse. The Seneca (Great Hill People), are keepers of the western door, while the other nations, the Oneida (People of the Standing Stone), Onondaga (People of the Hills-Keepers of Fire and Wampum), Cayuga (Those of the Great Pipe), and the Tuscarora (Shirt Wearing People and added around 1760), are spread in between. HOUSING/TRAVEL: See Tribal Housing/Transportation
|
|
TRIBES - All Ojibwa groups originally came from one group that lived north of modern-day Sault Ste Marie. The Ojibwa expanded quite significantly prior to The Change, and moved all over Turtle Island. Southeast into Haudenosaunee lands in Ontario, Wisconsin, Minnesota, displacing the Lakota. term was later extended to others sharing the same culture and language in the Upper Great Lakes area. The lucrative fur trade lured many Ojibwa into northern Ontario and Manitoba; some even spread to the Plains, becoming the Plains Ojibwa. In the beginning there were many politically autonomous groups who eventually came to be collectively called the Ojibwa. Some tribal names still in use are: Saulteaux (French for "people of the rapids" - origins in Sault Ste. Marie; American Ojibwa and those of southern Ontario are generally known as the Chippewa; others include: the Mississauga, Nipissing, Ottawa or Odawa (Bruce Peninsula, Manitoulin Island and Georgian Bay); Potawatomi (lower Lake Michigan) 'Although there is not a completely shared identity, many Ojibwa prefer to be referred to as 'Anishinabe' meaning "person" or "first man" - the concept of an Anishinabe Nation has emerged to link the widespread speakers of the Ojibwa language. Variants of the term "Ojibwa" include Ojibway, Ojibwe, Ochipwe and Chippewa. LANGUAGES: Ojibwe, Ottawa and Algonkin are considered a single language with several dialects. CONFEDERACY: During the historic period the Ojibwa, Potawatomi and the Odawa formed a loose confederacy known as the Council of the Three Fires. LEADERSHIP: Numerous politically independent bands within the Anishinabe people were linked by marriage and common traditions. Each had its own chief and hunting territories. Position of chief was usually gained by an individual's hunting, warfare or shamanic prowess. There was no single chief, each leader could speak for only his small band. CLAN SYSTEM: Each tribe had its own clan taken from a bird, animal, fish or reptile which was their totem or Do-daim (Ojibwa for Clan). There are some twenty-one totems, the most important being: bear, eagle, hawk, beaver, coyote, turtle, otter, mouse, buffalo. wolf, marten, catfish, crane and loon. Clan membership was generally patrilineal - children, for the most part, inherited their totem animal from their fathers. If two people shared the same totem, they could not marry even if they were not blood relatives. It was considered incest.
FOOD: Hunting (Moose, deer, bear and other game), fishing (pickerel, pike, suckers, whitefish, trout and sturgeon) and plant collecting (tapping of maple trees in spring, large stores of berries, wild rice (actually a form of cereal grass), corn, beans, squash. By 17th century focus was on beaver because of the demands of the fur trade. CLOTHING: Tanned hides of deer or moose using thread of nettle fibre or sinew. Women wore moccasins, leggings and deer hide dresses belted at waist; Men wore breechcloth, hip-high leggings and moccasins. Heavy coats of moose hide were worn in winter, along with beaver caps, mittens and fur-lined moccasins. Ojibwa women are particularly noted for their magnificent beadwork. Hair worn long by both sexes; faces often greased and painted.
WARFARE: Alliances essential in organizing war parties. Deadliest enemies were the Haudenosaunee and Lakota. War parties avenged deaths, and provided young men with opportunities for glory. They used wooden clubs, bows, arrow, spears and shields that were made from moosehide. HOUSING/TRAVEL: See Tribal Housing/Transportation
|
|
TRIBES: There are a large number of regional names including: Blackfoot Confederacy (Blackfoot, Blood, Peigan, Athapaskan Sarcee); Gros Ventre (or Atsina); Plains Cree, Sioux*, Plains Ojibwa, Siouan Assiniboine (or ‘Stoney’). *Sioux is an insult, given to them by their enemy, the Crow (it means 'rattlesnake'). The correct terms are: Lakota (Dakota, Nakota). Also within the Lakota people, the Teton, Oglala, Hunkpapa. LANGUAGES - Pre-contact, spoke Algonkian languages; later languages such as Lakota were used. CLAN SYSTEM: Each clan identified with a symbol or totem: crane, bear, catfish, martin, wolf, loon. Clan membership was patrilineal; tribes headed by a series of Chiefs (War Chief, Tribal Chief). Also a Medicine Man (or Woman); Elders.
FOOD SOURCE: Hunter-Gatherers: Buffalo main source, but also pronghorn antelope, mule deer, elk, prairie chickens. BUFFALO: (Tatanka in Lakota) is the mental, spiritual, emotional and physical sustenance of the Plains People; White Buffalo Calf Woman came some nineteen generations ago; She brought with her a sacred pipe; She said she would provide them with all they would need to live safe, peaceful, bounteous lives. For thousands of years vast herds provided the basis for all Plains Life. There was once so many, they "darkened" the landscape. CLOTHING: Tanned deer or moose hide; Women: moccasins, leggings, dress, belt; Men: Breechcloth, hip-high leggings, moccasins; Elaborate beading.
HORSE:
First horses introduced to southern Plains around 1640 - really
proliferated
WARFARE: Extremely skilled and ruthless warriors. The horse (arrived around 1650) making warfare easier. War Parties were led by War Chiefs and accompanied by a Medicine Man who used supernatural powers to weaken the enemy. Weapons: Spears, bows, arrows, knives, war clubs. The great Oglala Lakota Warrior Leader, Crazy Horse is the stuff of legends. He was such a brilliant strategist and so impressed the American military of the time, that some of his war strategies are still taught at West Point. Other warriors such as Nez Perce, Olikut (brother to Chief Joseph), Shawnee Leader, Tecumseh, and many, many more have made their mark in Indigenous history in terms of leadership and military skills. COUNTING COUP: A warrior who was able to ride up and simply strike an enemy without killing him was extremely honoured (the rock stars of their time). Such action showed disdain for the enemy as not being worthy of killing; it was a huge disgrace to the warrior on the receiving end of being only touched. To die in battle was the ultimate honour and what warriors 'lived' for. HOUSING/TRAVEL: See Tribal Housing/Transportation
|
|
TRIBES: Term Cree came from a French word, Kristinaux, or Kiristinon. They lived mainly on the shores of James Bay, along the western shores of Hudson Bay, north to Churchill River and perhaps as far as Lake Winnipeg in the west and Lake Nipigon in the south. During the fur trade years they expanded onto the Plains, and adapted their culture to that of the Plains. As a result they become warriors and buffalo hunters. LANGUAGE: Cree. A single language with nine dialectal differences:
FOOD: Hunters of moose, caribou, bear and beaver. Smaller game such as hare were crucial to survival, along with geese and other waterfowl. Berry-picking in warmer weather. Fishing and plant growth very limited. Weather conditions, particularly in the winter were very harsh. As was the case with all Native groups, hunting was a spiritual activity as well as a necessary one; prior to the start of the hunt, there were appropriate ceremonies that included, the laying down of tobacco, placing small pieces of meat in a fire, drums and songs, plus the care of the bones were all observed. These practices ensured a good harvest and gave respect the 'gift' of the animal. CLOTHING: tanned caribou or moose hide. Quillwork was a beautiful art form developed by the Cree to decorate their clothing. Later beadwork replaced the quills.
SOCIAL LEVELS: Nuclear family, hunting groups (local band); community group (regional
band). Cree married young, because adulthood was not achieved unless one
were married.
|
|
The Micmac called themselves L'nu'k, meaning "the people". The term Mi'kmaq comes from the word nikmak, meaning "my kin friends" or "Allies". The Mi'kmaq of eastern Canada and the northeastern corner of the United States first appeared in their homeland approximately ten thousand years ago. They call the region Mi'kma'ki. Archaeological evidence indicates that these first inhabitants arrived from the west and lived as hunters and gatherers attuned to the shifting, seasonal resources of the area. During the summer months they hunted and fished, sometimes venturing out to sea to hunt whales and porpoises. Their winter camps were inland, built along rivers and lakes so that they could augment their hunting by spearing and trapping eels and other water creatures. TERRITORY: included all of what is now Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec, the north shore of New Brunswick and inland to the Saint John River watershed, eastern Maine, and part of Newfoundland, including the islands in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence as well as St. Pierre and Miquelon; Mi'kmaq neighbors recognized their territory and rarely violated its borders. TRIBES: Mi'kmaq people thought of their homeland as containing seven districts: Kespukwitk, Sikepne'katik, Eski'kewaq, Unama'kik, Piktuk aqq Epekwitk, Sikniktewaq, and Kespe'kewaq. HOUSING: Wigwams, usually constructed by women in a day. LANGUAGE: The Mi'kmaq language is part of the Algonquian language family, and its ancestral language is Proto-Algonquian. Early forms of communication among the Mi'kmaq included an elaborate system of runners who went from village to village relaying messages about recent or future events, treaties, and even calls to war. CLOTHING: Men: loin cloth. Winter: loose robe of furs, or skins of mammals, birds or fish worn with leggings and moccasins. Women: Similar loose robe that extended below knees. Skins were tanned using animal brains, bird livers and oil. Bone awls were used to make holes in the leather for sewing. Animal sinew, separated into fine strands, served as thread. Decorated with porcupine quills, paintings. Oiled hair and painted faces. By the 18th century, cloth had replaced furs and hides. Beads, ribbons and embroidery replaced quills. FOOD: The Mi'kmaq took advantage of the wealth of food available all along the sea coast of the Maritimes. Fish and ocean mammals of all kinds, including salmon and sturgeon, plus porpoises, whales, walrus, seals, lobster, squid, shellfish, eels and seabirds with their eggs made up the bulk of their diet. They also ate moose, caribou, beaver and porcupine, as well as smaller animals, like squirrels. Berries, roots and edible plants were gathered during the summer. Meat and fish were dried and smoked to preserve them. As a result, of this varied diet, the Mi'kmaq were very healthy people. TOOLS: Mi'kmaq people had mastered techniques which enabled them to make tools and equipment from animal bone, ivory, teeth, claws, hair, feathers, fur, leather, quills, shells, clay, native copper, stone, wood, roots and bark. Axes, adzes and gouges were made by pecking and grinding stone to a sharp edge and smooth surface. In turn, these tools were used to cut and carve wood. Fine carving was done with sharp beaver teeth. For killing game and butchering meat, they used spears, knives, arrow points and scrapers, all made from special stones like chalcedony.
WARFARE: Given some of the blame for the eventual extinction of the Bealthuk people of the east coast. The rivalry over the French fur trade enhanced earlier tensions between the Mi'kmaq and the Abenaki, which led to the Tarrateen War between the two and their allies. The fighting continued for eight years and although the French were not pleased with the warfare, they continued trading with both sides. The Mi'Kmaq were victorious. Mi'Kmaq took on all comers to protect their lucrative fur trading deals. They had traded for powerful firearms which made them formidable foes. HOUSING/TRAVEL: See Tribal Housing/Transportation |
|
|
|
"Eskimo" which is no longer used because it is an Algonquian derogatory word meaning 'eaters of raw meat'. Inuit means "The people", and is the correct term. Until the beginning of the 19th century, the Inuit believed themselves the only people in the world. Territory:
Beliefs: The Inuit are closely connected to nature. Their tradition believes that every being has a spirit and must be treated with respect, and, therefore, they try to live in complete harmony with the land and the sea because the environment has a language of its own; Like all Indigenous cultures, Storytelling is an important part of the culture because it preserves past history. Inuit look to the past to plan their future. HUNTING GEAR: The Inuit used several kinds of harpoons and spears. Large harpoons were used to hunt the walrus. Smaller spears were used for hunting other animals, such as seal and birds. All spear throwers were individually made for the hunter. LANGUAGE: Inuktitut - there are many dialects. 'Aput' is the word for snow. Inuktitut means "to sound like an Inuk". FOOD: Caribou, seal, walrus, whales, dried fish, blackberry bush, berries, seaweed. TOOLS: A Panak (knife) was a special knife used for the cutting of snow blocks to create igloo housing; CLOTHING: Clothes were made from the skins of caribou, seal, eider ducks, dogs and other animals. The fur was worn 'inside' the garment for added warmth and insulation from the bitter cold. HOUSING/TRAVEL: See Tribal Housing/Transportation
|
|
|
|
Note to Gentle Readers: Due to the almost mythical number of SPAM emails (average: 8,000/mo), anti-spam software has been installed - be patient and answer the question from IPermitmail; Thunderbird looks forward to hearing from you. |
HIGHLY NOMADIC, ranging
hundreds of miles to hunt, trade, war with their enemies. There were no
clearly defined boundaries. They were also following their spiritual
basis, the migratory paths of Tatanka (Buffalo). Portable housing in
the form of tipis came in handy!
