ANISHINAABE (Ojibwa)
(Anishinaabe Means: From Whence He Was Lowered)

TRIBES - All Ojibwa groups originally came from one group that lived north of modern-day Sault Ste Marie. The Ojibwa expanded quite significantly prior to European contact, and moved all over Turtle Island. Southeast into Haudenosaunee lands in Ontario, Wisconsin, Minnesota, displacing the Lakota.

The lucrative fur trade lured many Ojibwa into northern Ontario and Manitoba; some even spread to the Plains, becoming the Plains Ojibwa (or Oji-Cree). In the beginning there were many politically autonomous groups who eventually came to be collectively called the Ojibwa.  Some tribal names still in use are: Saulteaux (French for "people of the rapids" - origins in Sault Ste. Marie; American Ojibwa and those of southern Ontario are generally known as the Chippewa; others include: the Mississauga, Nipissing, Ottawa or Odawa (Bruce Peninsula, Manitoulin Island and Georgian Bay); Potawatomi (lower Lake Michigan)

'Although there is not a completely shared identity, many Ojibwa prefer the universal term, 'Anishinaabe' meaning "person" or "first man" - the concept of an Anishinaabe Nation has emerged to link the widespread speakers of the Ojibwa language.  Variants of the term "Ojibwa" include Ojibway, Ojibwe, Ochipwe and Chippewa. 

LANGUAGES: Ojibwa, Ottawa and Algonkian are considered a single language with several dialects.

CONFEDERACY: During the historic period the Ojibwa, Potawatomi and the Odawa formed a loose confederacy known as the Council of the Three Fires.

LEADERSHIP: Numerous politically independent bands within the Anishinabe people were linked by marriage and common traditions. Each had its own chief and hunting territories.  Position of chief was usually gained by an individual's hunting, warfare or shamanic prowess.  There was no single chief, each leader could speak for only his small band.

CLAN SYSTEM: Each tribe had its own clan taken from a bird, animal, fish or reptile which was their totem or Do-daim (Ojibwa for Clan). There are some twenty-one totems, the most important being: bear, eagle, hawk, beaver,  coyote, turtle,  otter, mouse, buffalo. wolf, marten, catfish, crane and loon.  Clan membership was generally patrilineal (descended from the Father) - children, for the most part, inherited their totem animal from their fathers.  If two people shared the same totem, they could not marry even if they were not blood relatives. It was considered incest.

FOOD: Hunting (Moose, deer, bear and other game), fishing (pickerel, pike, suckers, whitefish, trout and sturgeon) and plant collecting (tapping of maple trees in spring, large stores of berries, wild rice (actually a form of cereal grass), corn, beans, squash.  By 17th century focus was on beaver because of the demands of the fur trade.

CLOTHING: Tanned hides of deer or moose using thread of nettle fibre or sinew.  Women wore moccasins, leggings and deer hide dresses belted at waist; Men wore fitted breechcloths with a flap in front and one in back, hip-high leggings and moccasins along with knee-length deer buckskin shirts worn over leggings.  Lots of quillwork was added to the shirts for decoration.  Heavy coats of moose hide were worn in winter, along with beaver caps, mittens and fur-lined moccasins.   Hair worn long by both sexes; faces often greased and painted. The switch to European clothing can be dated back to the 1700s for the Ojibwa. The Hudson's Bay Blanket replaced heavy animal hide robes for winter wear. Silver bells, buckles, beading was added.  Ojibwa women are particularly noted for their magnificent beadwork. (Photo at left shows Ojibwe men in 'traditional' 19th century garb.

WARFARE:  Alliances essential in organizing war parties.  Deadliest enemies were the Haudenosaunee and Lakota.  War parties avenged deaths, and provided young men with opportunities for glory.  They used wooden clubs, bows, arrow, spears and shields that were made from moosehide.

HOUSING/TRAVEL:  See Tribal Housing/Transportation

 HAUDENOSAUNNE
(Means: People of the Longhouse)

Terms ‘Iroquois’ and ‘Iroquoian’ are distinct terms. NOTE: There is no such thing as a tribe called Iroquois. It is simply a derogatory 'umbrella' term used to describe a number of tribes with similar lifestyles and languages. 

• The term 'Iroquois' is also an insult and should not be used.  Like negative names of a number of tribes ('Sioux' and 'Eskimo' being two), it was a label given by their enemies and then adopted by the Europeans. The Algonquin called them the Iroqu (Irinakhoiw) "rattlesnakes." After the French added the Gallic suffix "-ois" to this insult, the name evolved into Iroquois and refers to: the League of Nations - Seneca, Cayuga, Onandaga, Oneida, Mohawk and later, Tuscarora.  Also, extinct tribes: Huron, Petun, Neutral. The correct term is HAUDENOSAUNNE meaning "People of the Longhouse."

• ‘Iroquoian’ refers to all languages in the family, Iroqouian - Northern. 

LANGUAGES of individual tribes were closely related and, although not identical, mutually intelligible. The greatest similarities existed between the Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga and Seneca. The Huron-Wendat and Mohawk languages are part of the Iroquoian linguistic group.

WHERE THEY LIVED: Originally lived in the Eastern Woodlands, an area that extended from the land south of Lake Ontario, along the Mohawk River, and westward to the Finger Lakes and Genessee River, in what is now New York State; The land was rich with hardwood forests, soils and climate capable of supporting the only Indigenous agricultural peoples.

The Haudenosaunee people were rooted to the land and designated each person an important function as the seasons changed. Women held a powerful place in the tribes and were the caretakers of the agricultural cycle, and responsible for the day-to-day governance of the tribe; women made baskets/clothing, cared for the children and Elders and made most of the day-to-day decisions. Men were hunters and warriors; providers and protectors of the community who executed the decisions made by women.; 

MATRIARCHAL CLAN SYSTEM. Clan Mothers, the leaders of the clan, selected the council members, or chiefs, and had veto power over the men's decisions. Women not only managed the political life of the Haudenosaunee, they, owned all property, determined kinship. Marriage: Man moved into Woman’s longhouse.

CLANS:

FOOD: Beans, corn, squash, pumpkins. Corn soup an everyday meal; fish and meat also included. A wide variety of wild berries, nuts, wild onions, mushrooms, greens, completed the diet; Hunting less importance to diet as it was to supply hide for clothing. Deer was the principal game; bear and beaver secondary.

CLOTHING: Animals hides, principally, deer. Men wore short front and back breechcloths. In ceremony, a kee-length kilt was added held up with a leather belt.  Other items includes: long-sleeve hide shirts, leggings, moccasins; Women - hide dresses, moccasins. Clothing often elaborately beaded. (Foto, left is of a Gustoweh headdress). After European contact, glass beads, yarn, ribbons were used.  Men also word a black velvet cap copies somewhat from a Scottish tam.  Silver became hugely popular and arm bands, brooches and other confections were added.

WARFARE: Ruthless warriors, and very skilled. They were quiet warriors perfectly at home in their woodland environment. Without moving a leaf on a tree, or snapping a twig, warriors could move through the forest in almost total quiet; quarry would not know until the warrior was right beside them.  Mohawk warriors had an almost mystical reputation. Prior to the establishment of the League of Nations, also called Confederacy (see below), warfare was widespread. Later, their skill  was  much coveted by the British during the war with the United States in the 1700s.

GIFTED IN PEACE: The Haudennosaunne Confederacy. Five nations established a peace treaty which led to the formation of one of the world's earliest democracies. This society gave rise to great orators, like the Onondaga, Hiawatha, and noble leaders, such as the Seneca, Cornplanter, who was rewarded with a tract of land along Pennsylvania's Allegheny River for his diplomatic efforts with the fledgling government of the American Colonies. Benjamin Franklin was so impressed that he based the Declaration of Independence on the Confederacy's principles.

WOMEN: A woman of the clan owned the Longhouse. It was passed down to her from her mother and traced back to the woman who originally started the clan. The women were powerful figures of the clans for they not only owned the Longhouse, they were in control of the land, property and were the decision-makers,  which included choosing choose the tribal chief and deposing said chief if the job was not being done to their satisfaction. be.

HOUSING/TRAVEL:  See Tribal Housing/Transportation

INUIT

"Eskimo" which is no longer used because it is an Algonquian derogatory word meaning 'eaters of raw meat'. Inuit in their language, InuktItuk, means "Many people", Inuk means "One Person". and is the correct term. Until the beginning of the 19th century, the Inuit believed themselves the only people in the world. 

TERRITORY: 

• When it is winter, above the Arctic Circle, the sun never rises for 3 months, light is by stars, moon, or the brilliance of Aurora Borealis.

• Canada's newest territory, called Nunuvut (proclaimed, April 1, 1999), consists of central and eastern portions of the Northwest Territories and represents the majority of Inuit citizens (some 25,000 people).

• The province of Newfoundland and Labrador is home to four peoples of Indigenous ancestry: the Inuit, the Innu, the Mi'Kmaq and the Métis. The Inuit are the descendants of the Thule people who migrated to Labrador from the Canadian arctic 700 to 800 years ago. The primary Inuit settlements are Nain, Hopedale, Postville, Makkovik and Rigolet on the north coast of Labrador.

BELIEFS: The Inuit are closely connected to nature. Their tradition believes that every being has a spirit and must be treated with respect, and, therefore, they try to live in complete harmony with the land and the sea because the environment has a language of its own; Like all Indigenous cultures, Storytelling is an important part of the culture because it preserves past history. Inuit look to the past to plan their future.

HUNTING GEAR: The Inuit used several kinds of harpoons and spears. Large harpoons were used to hunt the walrus. Smaller spears were used for hunting other animals, such as seal and birds. All spear throwers were individually made for the hunter. 

LANGUAGE:  Inuktitut - there are many dialects. 'Aput' is the word for snow. Inuktitut means "to sound like an Inuk".

FOOD:  Caribou, seal, walrus, whales, dried fish, blackberry bush, berries, seaweed.

TOOLS:  A Panak (knife) was a special knife used for the cutting of snow blocks to create igloo housing; 

CLOTHING: Clothes were made from the skins of caribou, seal, eider ducks, dogs and other animals.  The fur was worn 'inside' the garment for added warmth and insulation from the bitter cold. An Atiqik is a Inuit parka made with goose down.  It is in the springtime that goose feathers are collected to use as the 'down' for the parkas.

CLOTHING: Artists: Kenojuak Ashewak, Anne Pootoogook, Andrew Qappik

HOUSING/TRAVEL:  See Tribal Housing/Transportation

LENAPE - DELAWARE 

TRIBES:  Three main tribes: Munsee, Unami, Unalachtigo. Prior to European contact the Lenape lived in a  area they referred to as Lenapehoking between the Lower Hudson and Delaware** rivers. They are also called Lenni Lenape ("True People").  

**The Delaware River was named by English settlers after  Lord De La Warr, the Governor of the Jamestown Settlement. In the beginning the Lenape were reluctant to accept their new name, but it was soon absorbed into the cultural lexicon on the tribes.

LANGUAGES - Munsee and Unami belong to the Algonquian family of languages.

CLAN SYSTEM:  Tribal communities were organized into clans determined by Matrilineal descent.

FOOD SOURCE:  The Lenape were agriculturally-based, much like the Haudenosaunee, and therefore, were sedentary for the most part moving to pre-established encampment according to the seasons. They were also hunter/gatherers (Elk, deer, turkey, small game) and harvested seafood. Their crop was primarily  maize, corn, squash, beans.  Traditional preparation included: soup, cornbread, dumplings, and salads.

CLOTHING: Women women wore knee-length skirts. Men wore breechcloths and leggings. Shirts were not often worn, but deerskin mantles were worn if the weather was cold. Both men and women wore earrings, moccasins. Eventually, as was the case with other tribes, European clothing made of cloth were adopted that were often beaded.  Traditional headdresses were relatively simple, beaded headbands. The mean followed Haudenosaunne traditions, by shaving their heads completed except for a scalplock in the middle.

TOOLS: Lenape are known for their gorgeous beadwork, pottery and basketry. As well, they crafted wampum out of white and purple shell beads.  Wampum was traded as a kind of currency but had a more cultural importance because the designs often depicted symbols of a family. 

WARFARE: Not so much. They were called "Grandfather" by many other tribes because of their gentleness and ability to resolve disputes by acting as Peacemakers.  However, when forced into battle there were no fiercer in defends of family and territory.  They used heavy wooden war clubs and wore "body armour" made of layers of moosehide and wood. The preferred method was to walk the path of peace before and after European contact.

HOUSING/TRAVEL:  See Tribal Housing/Transportation

MÉTIS

"Metis" means in French, "Mixed Blood or Half Blood". Métis  were the first new cultural group introduced to Turtle Island. They were the mixed race offspring of First Nations and fur traders/early European settlers of the North West Territories and the Prairies, and their descendants. Originally the term referred specifically to children born to Woodland Cree women, sired by French fur traders. It was expanded to include Ojibwa, Algonquin, Menominee and Saulteau unions. It was further expanded to include unions between a person from any Native tribe and a non-Native person. Métis  were also known as Bois Brûlé,  which is an interesting term in and of itself. It literally means, 'burnt wood' and in the case of Métis refers to their skin colour. The Chippwayan term for the Métis is, "bèpa redhkkpayn; Ojibwa term, wi:ssakkote:w-inini, both when loosely translated mean, "half burnt wood". (from, "A Language of Their Own", Peter Bakker, pg. 64). 

The term, Métis, continually undergoes debates to broaden the definition. Métis do not have Native status under the Indian Act but are recognized in the Canadian Constitution as a distinct group.  Some Métis like those in Alberta have a form of self-government (Communities) with free title to their land. Many First Nations people considered that Métis (prior to 1985), regained their right to be "Status" Indians as a result of Bill C31. In 1982, the Métis were included as a recognized Indigenous group in the amended Canadian Constitution - Section 35(2) - In this Act, "aboriginal peoples of Canada" includes the Indian, Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada

TERRITORY:  Distinct territories emerged out of the demands of the Fur Trade from the Great Lakes to the Northwest as far as the McKenzie River. The communities were connected through a vast network of mobility because of the hunt for furs. Their power base is primarily in Western Canada, in particular the three Prairie Provinces, Alberta, Manitoba and Saskatchewan.

BELIEFS:  Were a combination of both the Christian Father and First Nations Mother. It was a complex dance and in some respects was a good thing because children were raised moreorless in two worlds, which would hold them in good stead as the world of First Nations changed.  In a spiritual renewal that is taking place all across First Nations, the Métis have incorporated the sweatlodge, medicine wheel teachings, sacred pipe and longhouse traditions into their world.

MUSIC:  Fiddle-playing is a Métis art form which many skilled players. Some of the more lively tunes were borne out of playing the fiddle while exercising their horses. Often, the horses would 'square dance', and intricate patterns were created through very skill riding. It has been claimed that the the R.C.M.P musical ride came out of watching the Métis exercise their horses. The hand drum, harmonica are also dominant instruments. (Photo: John Arcand, the most famous and prolific of the Metis Fiddlers, has written over three hundred tunes)

LANGUAGE: The Métis still speak their own form of French or their own special language called Métif which is a variation of Métis and consisted of French nouns and Cree verbs. However, today, they speak primarily English with French following close behind.

FOOD:  Buffalo meat, bannock. Pemmican a staple: Large pieces of dried buffalo meat pounded into a "flour."   This "meat flour" was mixed with buffalo fat and dried or crushed berries.

CLOTHING:  Ceinture Fléchée (means arrow sash) or Métis sash. The wool sash had a very practical use by being tried tightly around winter coats (capote) to keep out the cold. Now the sash is the traditional dress of the Métis. In the beginning it was a long, involved process in weaving the sash and required hundreds of hours. Foto at right, is a Métis sash given to me as an Elder gift).

HOUSING/TRAVEL:  See Tribal Housing/Transportation

MI'KMAQ

The Mi'maq called themselves L'nu'k, meaning "The People".  The term Mi'kmaq comes from the word nikmak, meaning "my kin friends" or "Allies".

The Mi'kmaq of eastern Canada and the northeastern corner of the United States first appeared in their homeland approximately ten thousand years ago. They call the region Mi'kma'ki. Archaeological evidence indicates that these first inhabitants arrived from the west and lived as hunters and gatherers attuned to the shifting, seasonal resources of the area. During the summer months they hunted and fished, sometimes venturing out to sea to hunt whales and porpoises. Their winter camps were inland, built along rivers and lakes so that they could augment their hunting by spearing and trapping eels and other water creatures.

WHERE THEY LIVED: included all of what is now Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec, the north shore of New Brunswick and inland to the Saint John River watershed, eastern Maine, and part of Newfoundland, including the islands in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence as well as St. Pierre and Miquelon; Mi'kmaq neighbors recognized their territory and rarely violated its borders.

TRIBES: Mi'kmaq people thought of their homeland as containing seven districts: Kespukwitk, Sikepne'katik, Eski'kewaq, Unama'kik, Piktuk aqq Epekwitk, Sikniktewaq, and Kespe'kewaq.

HOUSING: Wigwams, usually constructed by women in a day. 

LANGUAGE: The Mi'kmaq language is part of the Algonquian language family, and its ancestral language is Proto-Algonquian. Early forms of communication among the Mi'kmaq included an elaborate system of runners who went from village to village relaying messages about recent or future events, treaties, and even calls to war.

CLOTHING: Men: loin cloth. Winter: loose robe of furs, or skins of mammals, birds or fish  worn with leggings and moccasins. Women: Similar loose robe that extended below knees.  Skins were tanned using animal brains, bird livers and oil.  Bone awls were used to make holes in the leather for sewing. Animal sinew, separated into fine strands, served as thread. Decorated with porcupine quills, paintings. Oiled hair and painted faces. By the 18th century, cloth had replaced furs and hides. Beads, ribbons and embroidery replaced quills.   (Picture at left is of a peaked female headdress; Left Mi'Kmaq family)

FOOD: The Mi'kmaq took advantage of the wealth of food available all along the sea coast of the Maritimes. Fish  and ocean mammals of all kinds, including salmon and sturgeon, plus porpoises, whales, walrus, seals, lobster, squid, shellfish, eels and seabirds with their eggs made up the bulk of their diet. They also ate moose, caribou, beaver and porcupine, as well as smaller animals, like squirrels. Berries, roots and edible plants were gathered during the summer. Meat and fish were dried and smoked to preserve them. As a result, of this varied diet, the Mi'kmaq were very healthy people.

TOOLS: Mi'kmaq people had mastered techniques which enabled them to make tools and equipment from animal bone, ivory, teeth, claws, hair, feathers, fur, leather, quills, shells, clay, native copper, stone, wood, roots and bark. Axes, adzes and gouges were made by pecking and grinding stone to a sharp edge and smooth surface. In turn, these tools were used to cut and carve wood. Fine carving was done with sharp beaver teeth. For killing game and butchering meat, they used spears, knives, arrow points and scrapers, all made from special stones like chalcedony.

WARFARE: Given some of the blame for the eventual extinction of the Bealthuk people of the east coast.  The rivalry over the French fur trade enhanced earlier tensions between the Mi'kmaq and the Abenaki, which led to the Tarrateen War between the two and their allies. The fighting continued for eight years and although the French were not pleased with the warfare, they continued trading with both sides. The Mi'Kmaq were victorious. Mi'Kmaq took on all comers to protect their lucrative fur trading deals.  They had traded for powerful firearms which made them formidable foes.

HOUSING/TRAVEL:  See Tribal Housing/Transportation