"The woman is the foundation on which nations are built. She is the heart of her nation. If that heart is weak, the people are weak. If her heart is strong and her mind is clear, then the nation is strong and knows its purpose. The woman is the center of everything."

(Art Solomon, For the People: Teachings on the Natural Way)

COMMENT: If only that were the case for Native Women!

CHEROKEE SAYING

"God has given us rights as women. We can't blame the men for ignoring us.  It is because of the ignorance of women that we suffer from these problems. We women must be wise and strong enough to take charge, or we'll never have a voice in the community. We must stand up for ourselves and take responsibility for our own conditions." 
(Shama Chiragh, Afghanistan, 2002)

Thunderbird's CD "May  Your Spirit Be Strong'  has a tribute Song to the Women of Afghanistan and all women who have suffered and continue to suffer terrible oppression simply for being women.
 

There are many issues regarding Indigenous women and their place in the world. 

Until 1985, all versions of the Indian Act provided that, upon marriage, a Native groom conferred status on his non-Native wife, while the Native bride of a non-Native man lost her status. This provision was challenged as discriminatory under the Canadian Bill of Rights, a federal statute enacted in the 1960's. It took until 1985 (Bill C-31) for this terrible law to be repealed after a challenge was made under the Charter of Rights and Freedoms enacted with the new Constitution Act in 1982.

"Aboriginal women have encountered significant discrimination in their dealings with the Canadian state. They have not only been disadvantaged because of their race, but have also been discriminated against because of their gender. This discrimination is often contrary to the traditional values of many communities with were matrilineal or matrilocal in nature, or which enjoyed a greater degree of equality between the sexes than was the case in many non-native societies." Borrows, John J. and Leonard I. Rotman, Aboriginal legal issues: cases, material and commentary.  

With few exceptions, in most tribes, inheritance and descendants came though the matrilineal line. Recognition of the matriarch as a natural and equal leader was an an integral part of tribal life and gave women a powerful voice in the decision-making processes of day-to-day living.

Women made an enormous contribution to the health, welfare and economies of tribal communities and in most cases were responsible for the day-to-day operation of tribal communities. They looked after the decision-making, children, the Old Ones, decisions regarding raids, food preparation, planting, shelter, clothing, and on and on......

Most often they were the Leaders and Decision-makers, for a variety of reasons:
(a) Their intimate knowledge and interaction with all members of the group on a day-to-day basis made them natural leaders, healers and keepers of tribal history.
(b) Their finely honed attention to detail and multitasking skills made it possible to apply equal attention to the myriad of responsibilities they held - day-to-day governance; child-rearing; food and clothing preparation; planting; herbal medicines.
(c) This ability to multi-task made them natural leaders within the domain of the inner circle of tribal societies. 
(d) The understanding in a circular-based spiritual belief system is that women, as 'givers of life'  were responsible for the inner circle of family and community (see below). 
(e) They were often left alone for long periods of time as the men travelled farther and farther afield on the hunt.

WOMEN AND GOVERNANCE
Women's bodies were understood to be highly complex, internal physiologies. Their bodies were a metaphor for the powerful infrastructure of tribal societies over which they presided; women were greatly valued and respected and represented the heart of the tribe and the heartbeat of Mother Earth; this along with her sacred life-giving gift gave her honoured status. As a result, women commanded the inner circle and handled the day-to-day governance of the tribes, including:

• All facets of Native life from determining when war and/or raids against another tribe was necessary to when the tribe needed to move; 

• Overriding the decisions made by men if it was in the best interests of the community to do so.

• Acting as go-betweens and negotiators (a particularly onerous and responsible task in post-European contact times)

• Often they named chiefs, and also had the power to remove them if they were not acting in the best interests of The People.

• Discipline matters, although rare.

• WHO, WHAT, WHY actions that needed to take place. 

OTHER FACTS:

• Women's decisions were never questioned.

• All property belonged to the women.  When the men brought home booty from a raid, it was immediately claimed by the women who then decided how the distribution of it would occur.

• Most lineages descended from the woman.

• Girl Children were valued highly for they would one day take their rightful place in the centre of the tribe.

• When a women married, the man usually joined the wife's family.

• Women created the stories.

• When the hunt was scarce, it was women's knowledge as regards planting, gathering of berries, roots and various sea foods (for those tribes who lived near water), that saved the lives of The People. Shellfish, for example was an especially important food source during the winter months.

• Women tanned hides, fashioned clothing, built shelters.  On the Plains if was Buffalo who provided all the necessities of life;  On the Coast, it was the sea and the forest that provided the necessities of life.

• When a woman was on her moon time, the rest of the women would look after her children while she went to meditate in a special place for a few days.

• The tribe was a 'one family' unit in many ways, and women raised each other's children.

• They made implements such as knives, ladles, spoons, sewing needles.

• They were artistic and created breathtaking beadwork (post-European), and intricate weaving (hats, capes, blankets).

The arrival of the missionaries to Turtle Island spelled the death knell for matrilineal tribal hierarchies as they were understood for thousands of years.  The once prominent roles of Native Women in the governing of their tribal units was almost immediately attacked by the missionaries who were appalled at the level of authority women commanded. 

Christianity began to take hold and Native men began to believe in their own press, immortality and their new hierarchical position, that being the right hand of God.

Christianity relentlessly preached the opposite view, that rather than humans being cast as the weakest of all living things (a prevalent Native view), men, in particular, had been elevated above women, and were now sitting next to God!! Youza, helluva promotion!

This notion of omnipotence was an intoxicating and powerful, emotional drug for a once proud people who came to believe the antithetical viewpoint. Much of  this new thinking was forced on them because of starvation, deprivation and cultural genocide. Native people would believe anything if it meant feeding their children. Spiritually, the Ancestors were simply starved for some sort of validation in the new world.  Unfortunately it was very one-sided as men started to assume the decisionmaking roles long-held by women. With disastrous results, women were relegated to the sidelines of their own history.

Native men began to change their attitudes towards the role of women in the tribes, now seeing themselves as these omnipotent beings who had been promoted to run the world.  What is little known is that Indigenous women leaders would have none of this patriarchal behaviour, and began to leave the tribes, rather than face virtual slavery and anonymity. This left the men to do 'Women's Work!" That is, make decisions on the day-to-day operation of the tribe, something they were and still are ill-equipped to do. As a result, tribal units began to crumble and decay under the weight of male indecision and wrong decisions. It reverberates to this day with many male dominated band councils rife with corruption, nepotism, misuse of power and steadfast refusal to let women resume their rightful places in tribal life.

Matriarchal governance that had been the heartbeat of the tribes for so many thousands of years ended with a whisper, and women were relegated to the back benches of their own cultures. Indigenous women have been fighting a rearguard action ever since.

At powwows, ceremonies and other gatherings, many male leaders tout the importance of women in Native communities and their vital role in the decision-making process. Sounds good, but it is what it is - lip service. Family violence in Native communities is still five times the national average! 

After all this time, it is difficult for men to give up the notion of political power both outside and inside the family unit and place it back in the hands of the women. As Kim Anderson says, in her book, "A Recognition of Being: Reconstructing Native Womanhood", it is not possible "to go back to the golden age of the Ancestors."  The modern world has created many complex issues for Native people that are not easily solved.

Having said that, Native societies are constantly evolving ones, and as women grow stronger, and demand to take back the drum, they will create for themselves a new reality that will blend the old with the new, and in the end save Native societies.

In the beginning Native women (and any children from the union) who married non-Native men were stripped of their Indian Status. The reverse was not the case, White women who married Native men gained Indian Status.

In 1985 the Indian Act was amended to eliminated this terrible, racist inequity and re-instate those Native women who had lost their status.  Since 1985 over 120,000 Indigenous women have regained status (alas, but not their children).  

The main reason for Bill C-31 was to create equality between men and women by conforming to section 15 of the newly-minted (at the time) Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1982).  It was hoped that the "non-Status Indian" category would be eliminated making all Native people equal under the law and accorded the rights and privileges of Status Indians.

It didn't happen.  Instead Bill C-31 created two categories. Under section 6 of the Indian Act there are now two classes:  6(1) - A person with two Status Native parents; 6(2) - A person with only one Status Native parent.

"Bill-C31 still discriminates against women who marry non-Native men, because it states that Native women must marry a Native man in order to pass Status onto their children.  In other words, Section 6(2) created a half-breed Indian with a second generation cut-off clause.  This ever-increasing second generation have been described as "Ghost People." (P. Paul, "The Politics of Legislated Identity")  She writes:

"Currently the 'Ghost People' are children of Bill C-31, 6(2) [Native women] reinsates. However, in one or two years when the children born after 1985 who are registered under section 6(2) reach child-bearing age, and parent with a non-status person, the rise in numbers of 'Ghost People' will grow."

Moreover, a number of Band Counsels that are more often than not male dominated, and to make matters worse, 'family' dominated in that the men are from one family rule the reserves with iron fists. Constitutions are being written in the name of some sort of democracy unfamiliar to Thunderbird that effectively denies Bill C-31 women  who live off reserve  involvement in tribal life, if they desire to move back to reserve they are denied housing. In other words, discrimination against Native women continues only now with the addition of a 'RED' layer of discrimination parachuted on top of the numerous layers of 'white' discrimination added to already cumbersome and complicated legislation. The beat goes on......

For more than a century, from the adoption of the first Indian Act in 1876, until an amendment to the act in 1985, Native Women were subjected to legislation that discriminated against their race, their gender and their marital status. 

The effects of the Indian Act had an incalculable negative impact on the role of women in Native society, and it could follow a Native women throughout her life (and even after her death). When the act first came into force, it included a number of clauses for the "emancipation of Indians." This process, whereby a Native person gave up, or was "released from", his or her status as an "Indian", and his or her right to belong to a band, was applied to any Native woman who married a non-Native man. The law permitted a Native man to keep his status, and accorded this status to his non-Native wife and any children they might have, but a Native woman married to a non-Native man ceased to be an "Indian" before Canadian law. 

For women in this situation, the consequences were enormous. They were forced to leave their homes and/or the homes of their parents and were not permitted to live in their communities. They were no longer entitled to land on a reserve, and therefore lost any property they may have had before they were married. They lost the right to inherit any family property. They were stripped of all rights to participate in band councils and the political and social affairs of their community. Their children were not recognized as "Status Indians." In fact, any woman in this situation, and any children she may have had, were banned from participating in the cultural development of their communities and also lost all rights that accompanied "Indian Status". She could also be refused to be buried with her ancestors.

Even following a separation, a divorce, or if she were widowed, a Native woman could still be refused the right to return to live with her family and it was rare that she could regain her status. For Native women who married Native men, the act was just as discriminatory.  

A 1927 amendment to the act, required that any widow had to "lead a good and proper life" in order to inherit any properties or monies from her deceased husband. The Superintendent of Indian Affairs was the sole and final judge, with no recourse for appeal, of what constituted "a good and proper life." 

The 1951 revisions to the act applied this same principle to any woman who could inherit any properties or monies from a Native person who died without a will, or final testament. It also allowed for the Superintendent to have the authority to decide on the status of an illegitimate child. The effects of this legislation were devastating on many levels. Besides having an incredible impact on the individual woman who found herself in any of these situations, the discriminatory application of the law also put into question the very nature of the status of Native women and their opportunities for an equitable participation in the political, economic, and social development of their communities. 

A Royal Commission on the Status of Women in Canada, set up in 1967 to study the situation of all women in the country, heard from a number of Native woman participants. Presenting their different situations, concerning the loss of their status and other discriminatory practices growing out of the law, and demanding that the commission make recommendations to change the offending articles in the Indian Act, especially those sections on membership in bands, these woman had made the first major public contribution to the changes that would come about almost twenty years later. 

An amendment to the Indian Act in 1985 (Bill C-31) repealed the discriminatory laws and women and their descendants who had married non-Native men were now recognized, including being able to return to their reserves. However, many were soon to discover that the reserves did not welcome them back, as they were seen as a financial drain on tight resources; moreover, although the women received their status, it did not, in fact, extend to their children.

CONSENSUS STATEMENT BY FIRST NATIONS WOMEN CHIEFS AND COUNCILLoRS
February 17, 2007, Vancouver, B.C.

First Nations Women Chiefs and Councillors outraged by crown government interference in the the lives of Indigenous people gathered together for the first time in modern history at the Assembly of First Nations National forum in Vancouver. They expressed their overwhelming concern and frustration with the current situation facing First Nations Communities, families and children.

FIRST NATIONS WOMEN CHIEFS AND COUNCILLORS:

• Honor the spirit and intent of the original relationship between First Nations and the Crown to live in peaceful co-existence, without interference, and to uphold the unceded inherent authorities given to us by the Creator.

• Assert that First Nations in Canada are Nations with pre-existing collective rights, responsibilities, languages, cultures, territories and laws.

• Maintain our authority to be the law-makers and caretakers of our Nations, our families and our lands. First Nation holistic laws will continue to guide our decision-making in the face of any and all federal, provincial and territorial legislation. The Crown continues to breach this original compact and interfere with this inherent jurisdiction, thereby creating and perpetuating poverty conditions amongst our peoples.

• Assert our collective inherent and Treat rights must not be diminished or adversely impacted in the development of federal, provincial and territorial law and policy.

• Will stand with First Nations governments to advance a comprehensive plan for accountability of all governments, the protection of collective rights and to eradicate poverty and social injustice.

• Will ensure that our lands, families and children are cared for; ensure that our rights are respected and upheld; and we will be responsible for the decisions that affect our lives. We will not relinquish our rights at the expense of our lands, families and future.

• Assert that negotiations and consultations regarding any federal, provincial or territorial initiatives that impact pre-existing inherent First Nation jurisdictions and Treaty rights must take place with the leadership of First Nations governments.

• Assert that solutions can be achieved locally, regionally, and nationally by working collective. We call upon the Government of Canada to work together with First Nations governments to co-create a new future for all our people.

• Assert that the cycle of poverty, violence, lack of access to quality health care and education, and the non-recognition of inherent First Nations jurisdiction continue to be perpetuated in federal genocide and assimilationist policies and approaches.

• Are united to oppose attempts by the federal government to unilaterally impose legislation and policy such as its initiatives currently reflected in the matrimonial real property process, and the repeal of section 67 of the Canadian Human Rights Act. These federal initiatives that diminish or adversely impact upon our unceded inherent authorities will be rejected.

• We will accomplish this through collective efforts that support systemic change.

AMEN!!

NOTE 1: Section 67 of the Canadian Human Rights Act reads: "Nothing in this Act affects any provision of the Indian Act or any provision made under or pursuant to that Act. [1976-77, c.33, s.63.]"

NOTE 2: Matrimonial Real Property Issues: There is no provision in the Indian Act which addresses partition or forced sale of individual interests in reserve land, i.e. matrimonial home in the cases of domestic violence. This is a serious legislative flaw resulting from the non-application of provincial family law and the absence of federal law. The only  recourse is to apply for an order for compensation upon sale of the property.  This has no teeth because the courts do not have the power to order a sale of an interest in unsurrendered reserve land.   Couples are generally left to themselves to find a resolution to disputes concerning matrimonial real property on reserve.  In other words, there is no statutory law, i.e., interim possession of the matrimonial home,  for spouses in an uneven power relationship. In a domestic violence situation, therefore, women and children are trapped in the matrimonial home with their abuser with nowhere to go and no laws to protect them unless a criminal act has been committed such as attempted murder or murder.

NOTE 3: If the male holds the title for the land on which the matrimonial home his located, the woman's right to remain on reserve may end with the breakdown of the marriage depending on how the band council has exercised its bylaw powers or residency. Even if she has membership should the husband decide to transfer his interest to the band or to another member of the band (which he can do without her consent), or if she is told to leave or has to leave, there is no legal remedy for her to gain possession of the house even though she is the primary caregiver to children of the marriage.

NOTE 4: If a woman holds joint title to the matrimonial home and the marriage breaks down and she is forced to leave the home with her children to to domestic violence situation, for example, she will have difficult in getting another allotment from band councils, there there is a perception that the family entitlement to land had been fulfilled.

NOTE 5: Women on reserve have been able to get a restraining order due to domestic violence issues that have allowed them to remain in the matrimonial home. However, after obtaining such an order women have been told by the RCMP that the band did not have the power to enforce the restraining order and there were not going to interfere in band council business!

That Native women, in cases of divorce, do not have the same rights as all other Canadian women because they cannot inherit or pass-on land??

Under the Canadian Constitution, provincial law governs the division of marriage assets upon marriage breakdown. Section 91(24) of the 1867 Constitution Act, confers exclusive legislative authority to the federal government in all matters dealing with the subject "Indians and lands reserved for Indians."  In other words, a Court of Law is not governed by provincial family law but by the federal Indian Act which contains no provisions for division of marital property.

Cumulative history of federal legislation denied Indigenous women property and inheritance rights thereby creating the custom and belief that Native women are not entitled to these rights.

In other words, all on-reserve marriage assets go to the man. This supported by a 1986 Supreme Court decision that held, as a result of the Indian Act, a woman cannot possess or apply for a one-half interest in on-reserve property for which her husband holds the Certificate of Possession.

The prevailing theme is that women on their moontime may not come to the big drum or hand drums for that matter. Women may not handle tobacco or any of the sacred medicines; may not hold a talking stick in a circle, may not go into sweatlodge; may not go on visionquest; may not sit in a lodge, may not...may not...may not....

As an Elder, Thunderbird is in the radical minority when it comes to Women and Ceremony. Women on their moontime are in a most sacred period of time - why is it, then, that they are banned from all things sacred? Their life-giving power pulsates and such energy can only enhance a ceremony, make it stronger, in tune with the Ancestors. It is not logical nor is it equitable. As a matter of fact it is yet another pathetic attempt to once again put Native women in their place - outside not only mainstream Turtle Island, but outside their own people. 

Thunderbird thinks that this is a post-Christian imposition on women, and she does not subscribe to anything that prevents a woman from practicing her beliefs at any time.  Are Christian women band from attending church on Sunday, taking communion, handling the bible?  Does the priest or minister stand in the pulpit and ask all women to leave who are on their moontime?  Does anyone get how illogical and discriminatory this is? 

Such controlling measures have no place in any modern, forward-thinking culture, that seeks to promote and keep itself alive and relevant. All other women can practice their spiritual beliefs without fear of reprisal; why is it that Native women, already marginalized by Canadian culture generally, are also prevented by their own people from practicing their spiritual beliefs five days a month!!  Surely, the sheer absurdity of such discrimination is obvious!

For more on Women and Ceremony 

DEAR ALEXIS,

Congratulations on this exciting new phase of your earth walk. With your first Moon time, you are now a woman. You timed it very well so you could come to this year’s Women’s Feast and sit at Moonstone Big Drum and sing! Nice going! You may not understand all that I have written here just now. Over time, however, you will come to understand. Keep this with you and refer to it as needed.

Women have a special relationship with Grandmother Moon; she controls all female life. She watches over the waters of the earth and regulates the tides. She is especially close to you because she governs your cleansing and purification cycle.

Alexis, as you continue on your earth walk, you may hear other women refer to their Moon Time as ‘the curse’, ‘the plague’, and other such negative phrases. I encourage you to ignore these comments.

Your Moon Time is a gift to you; a time of renewal, a time to cleanse yourself mentally, physically, emotionally and spiritually by creating space for new energy to come in. It is also a time for rest and reflection. Your Moon Time is considered a time of great power, second only to your ability to give life. That is how strong and wonderful your new power is.

You may be told that while on your Moon Time you cannot participate in ceremonies or handle sacred objects such as the talking stick, drums, shakers, tobacco, eagle feathers, smudge, pipes or even enter a sweatlodge. The reason given is that your power is so great you will upset the balance and harmony of the sacred objects or ceremony. This thinking is not only sexist it is illogical.

Your Moon Time cycle is a most sacred period of time in the month. Ask yourself, does it really make any sense for you to be banned from all things sacred! Your life-giving power pulsates and such energy can only enhance a ceremony, make it stronger and in tune with the Ancestors, especially the female ones.

Do not accept anything that prevents you from practicing your beliefs at any time. Women from other belief systems who are on their Moon Time are not banned from attending ceremonies. I doubt a priest or minister has the courage to stand in the pulpit and ask all women to self-identify and refrain from handling the bible or taking communion! Therefore, the current very dated male Native view is quite discriminatory don’t you think?

If other women can practice their spiritual beliefs without fear of reprisal, why is it that women who follow traditional Native practices are prevented from practicing their spiritual beliefs five days a month!! Such controlling measures have no place in any modern, forward-thinking culture that seeks to promote and keep itself alive and relevant.

As regards entering a Sweatlodge, I do caution you to consider carefully for strictly health and comfort reasons; the intense heat can be physically draining by causing even more dehydration and excessive heat than normal.

Remember, Moon Time is a celebration of creation and fertility. Eagle rejoices in this Moon Time song, the sacred medicines dance to the powerful female rhythms from your sacred life-giving source, the heartbeat of Mother Earth (the drum) pounds out its support as your voice soars to the universe celebrating the cycles of life, the sacred Fire burns brightly offering its medicine of renewal, Creator warmly receives your prayers on the smoke of the smudge.

I am proud of you Alexis, your intelligence, good cheer, warm personality and obvious love of your Mother and Brother. As you step forward on your new path, step with confidence, authority and joy.

As you grow into your womanhood, remember you are a leader, a decisionmaker and the centre of the family and community. As you continue to mature you will acquire knowledge and skills. Use them wisely in the service of your people. Protect those who are weaker than you; stand forward in your truth as a strong woman with the same rights as everyone else. Let no one tell you otherwise.

Finally, look after and love your family, follow your dreams, always live your life in a good way.

The necklace is my gift to you to mark this most important occasion. Wear it whenever you want to remind yourself of this exciting change in your life.

All My Relations,

Native Name: Waas My’een Ts’its’amti Hana’a
(Misty Morning Thunderbird Woman)
English Name: Shannon Thunderbird,
Coast Tsimshian First Nations Elder,
November 24, 2006
 

The hopes for more equitable treatment for Native women rides on the amendments being made to the current Indian Act. However, it does not look good. The great fear that the male-dominated, oppressive and gender-biased Band Councils that are currently in existence will continue to discriminate against Native women. 

It has been estimated that at least one-third of these councils are mired in nepotism and corruption. A March 2002 article by Rebecca Atkinson entitled "Native Women Still Far From Justice", argues that the widespread mistreatment of women by their predominantly male leaders has forced them to try and secure the same rights as other women through legislation in what Ms Atkinson calls a "thirty year gender war that has pitted the political aspirations of aboriginal leaders against the rights and needs of female band members." She continues:

"The gender struggle has translated into the suffering of Native women under the current systems of government - through physical and sexual abuse, discriminatory restorative justice measures and unresolved gaps in federal policy."

When a group of Native women approached the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs demanding more involvement in the consultation process for the new First Nations Governance Act, they were told that their concerns could not be addressed due to the longevity and complexity of their problems!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

This has not deterred the "Sisterhood" who are standing up against their powerful male counterparts and doing their best to remove themselves from under the oppressive arms of elected chiefs even it means ostracism from their reserves. It is the same battle waged by non-Native women at the turn of the 20th century as they fought for the vote and equal rights. Legislation such as this places female voting rights in jeopardy.

Susan Aglukark  (Born January 27, 1967) in Arviat, Northwest Territories. She is a singer, performer. "Arctic Rose," released in 1992, was her first independent recording. In 1993, named "Northerner of the Year" by Up Here Magazine and Mcleans listed her as one of "Canada's 100 Leaders To Watch For." Winner of 1994 National Aboriginal Achievement Award for Performance, "This Child'. released in 1995. She won a Juno in 1995 as "New Solo Artist" and "Arctic Rose" received a 1995 Juno as "Music of Aboriginal Canada Recording."

Bertha Allen (Born in 1934, Old Crow, Yukon, Gwich'in First Nations, Northwest Territories). Through her leadership as President of the Advisory Council on the Status of Women of the Northwest Territories, founding President of the Native Women's Association of the Northwest Territories and President of the Native Women's Association of Canada, Mrs. Allen has been a tireless promoter of equality for women. The only female member of the Bourque Commission, she helped create the new constitution for the western Northwest Territories. She is respected nationally for her common sense approach and her passion for women and families. In 1999, Ms Allen  received the Governor General Award for outstanding contributions.

Anna May Pictou Aquash  - Raised in Canada's Mi'kmaq  culture and religion, her treatment at an off-reserve school where she faced overwhelming racism led to her involvement in the American Indian Movement (AIM).  She was among the Native militants who occupied the village of Wounded Knee in a 71-day standoff with federal authorities in 1973. Aquash, 30, disappeared in late 1975 from a home where she had been staying in Denver. Her frozen body, with a gunshot wound to the head, was found in February, 1976 at the Pine Ridge reservation, about 90 miles east of Rapid City.
Her mysterious murder in 1976 was not solved until a new chapter in 2003 with the arrest of Arlo Looking Cloud. No charges have been proven against him, and the burden continues to rest with the government to prove its case against him. 

MOLLY BRANT  (Koñwatsiãtsiaiéñni, 1736 - April 16, 1796). By far the most powerful and influential woman in the Mohawk Nation. She single-handedly is credited with maintaining British loyalty throughout the Haudenausaunne Confederacy.

She was born to a Mohawk father and mother in Conajoharie, New York, the older sister of the famed Mohawk leader Joseph Brant. It was at the age of 17 that Molly met William Johnson, a famous British trader who later became Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the British Indian Department's Northern District. By the time she was 23, she had moved into his home and was fulfilling all the duties of wife, political consort, and hostess of his considerable estate. She had 8 children.  Her skill as a diplomat was admired by the political leaders of the day. Her grace and dignity as a hostess made the Johnson estate a major destination for visitors.

Never shy, Molly used her considerable influence with the British to see that her people were well cared for. In times of disagreement, it was she who traveled into the villages and met with the Sachems (chiefs) to urge their continuing loyalty to the Crown. So effective was she that provisions were made by the British to support her financially for her entire life! Her yearly pension even exceeded that of her famous brother, Joseph.

Prior to his death in 1774, Johnson had the foresight to make a will which left all of his wealth and property to Molly. Additionally, he set out political appointments for the children and for Molly's brother, Joseph. As the armies of the American Revolution drew closer to her home, Molly knew that word of her loyalties to the British were too well known for her to be safe there. She gathered her worldly goods and moved into Canada. Until her death, she continued to act as an intermediary between the Haudenausaunne and the British. Immortalized on 1986 Canada Post stamp.

EVA CARDINAL (Rock Woman, 'Asini-iskiw'), Cree)

Evangeline Redcrow Cardinal) Saddle Lake, Alberta is now  an Elder to her people.  She was born in the bush and shortly after the Elders named her 'Rock Woman.'  It is a fitting name. She has been in a number of films relating to residential schools, Native women and related subjects. 

She began as a cook at Poundmaker Treatment Centre and rose through counselor, senior counselor and eventually Director.  She left Poundmaker to work on the Sacred Circle project in the Edmonton Public School District.  With only a 7th grade residential school education, she eventually went to college and earned her degree.  She graduated in her 60's.  She is retired from EPSD now, after more than 20 years, and living back on the reserve. As a speaker she has recounted her harrowing journey as she survived residential school. She was determined to keep preserve her cultural identity and language. She and two other Survivors were the stars of a film, entitled, "The Learning Path."  Part of the description of the film is as follows:

"Generations of native children were taught in schools that to be native was somehow wrong. Exposed to racism, ridicule and overt disdain for native culture and traditions, they were made to feel inferior, even criminal. For today's generation of native students, these painful experiences need not be repeated. Native Canadians now have control over their own system of formal education and, to help restore what for many was lost, the classroom curricula includes studies that will ensure the continued survival of the native identity. In the film, we meet three remarkable educators. In their own unique ways, Edmonton elders Ann Anderson, Eva Cardinal and Olive Dickason are leading younger natives along the path of enlightenment. Documentary footage, dramatic re-enactments and archival film inter-weave the three women's stories, and Anderson and Cardinal recount their own harrowing experiences at residential schools; memories which have fueled their determination to preserve their native languages and identities. Along their paths we learn not just of the legacy that still plagues native education; we also learn of the strength with which it has been overcome."

TANTOO CARDINAL (Born July 20, 1950, Fort McMurray, ON) Cree/Metis)

Twenty-Five years in film makes Tantoo one of the most recognizable Indigenous actresses in television and movies. Nonetheless it has been difficult for her to find roles as Hollywood is less forgiving in creating roles for strong Indigenous women. Like all high-profile Native people, she is active working with Native youth and works hard to offset the stereotypical attitudes and understandings people have about Turtle Island's First People.  "You don't come through generations and generations of genocide and holocaust to be portrayed as monotoned and one-sided characters. That's just not possible!"

Maclean's magazine declared her Actress of the Year in 1991. In 1993 she was given the American Indian Film Festival best actress award. She also received the first Rudy Martin Award for Outstanding Achievement by a Native American in Film for her roles in Legends of the Fall, and The Education of Little Tree. Toronto Women in Film and Television honoured Tantoo with an Outstanding Achievement Award. And for her appearance on North of 60 she won a 1996 Gemini award for best performance by an actress in a guest role, dramatic series. In 2006, Tantoo was honoured by the City of Edmonton by being added to their Dreamspeakers Walk of Honour.

Angel DeCora Dietz  Born in 1871 on the Winnebago reservation in Nebraska. She was influential in shaping Native art in the early years of the 20th century. She graduated from the Hampton Institute in 1891 and studied art at Smith College, the Drexel Institute and at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Busy as an artist and illustrator of books, Angel DeCora Dietz also spent much time lecturing on the problems confronting Native Americans. She became the head of the art department at the Carlisle Indian School and with her husband, the Lakota teacher William Dietz, became active in Indian affairs, eventually meeting with President Theodore Roosevelt to discuss the concerns of Native Americans. She died in the great flu epidemic of 1919.

Gandoox (Sheila M. Conway), Coast Tsimshian First Nations. Thunderbird's Mom. This photo was taken when she was eighteen years old. She is now ninety-five! She broke new ground back in the 1930's and 40's as an Opera Singer as there were no First Nations artists tod be found in the 'grand arts' in that period. She sang for the troops in Theatre Under the Stars in Vancouver during the 1940's performing the role of Yum Yum from The Mikado numerous times. Her soprano voice was magic, Thunderbird is fortunate to have inherited some of it. She was also a concert pianist and a master puppeteer, creating, designing and making a three-hundred marionette cast of unforgettable characters. As children, Thunderbird and her Sister, Kate, travelled with her all over British Columbia bringing singing, dancing shows and the puppet theatre to  enthusiastic audiences everywhere. She is a scholar, writer, intellectual, choir-mistress, skill seamstress and costume-maker and on and one. She triumphed even though she suffered impossible racism during her early life. To this day she continues writing and researching. If the truth be known, she was born way before her time but even so managed to make a difference in the thousands of lives she's touched over sixty years of healing circles, seminars and workshops. Nonetheless, her intellectual and artistic passions are embedded in her two daughters as they carry on her legacy. She is one tough act to follow!

Jeannette Vivian Corbiere  Born June 21, 1941  on the Wikwemikong Reserve on Manitoulin Island in Ontario. It was her case that was fought all the way to the Supreme Court that eventually repealed the Canadian Indian Act to re-enfranchise those Native women who lost their Native status for marrying non-Native men. She is a founding member of the Ontario Native Women's Association.

Hanging Cloud  (1800s) was the daughter of an Ojibwa chief, and was the only woman of the Ojibwa Nation ever allowed to become a full warrior. She wore war paint, carried full battle weapons, and was a deadly warrior. As a warrior, she took part in battles, raids, hunting parties, and all sporting events reserved for warriors. She was also a full member of the war council, performed war dances, and participated in all warrior ceremonies.

LaDonna Harris,  Born February 15, 1931, Comanche. President of Americans for Indian Opportunity, is a remarkable statesman and national leader who has enriched the lives of thousands. She has devoted her life to building coalitions that create change. She has been a consistent and ardent advocate on behalf of Tribal America. In addition, she continues her activism in the areas of civil rights, environmental protection, the women's movement and world peace. In 1970 she founded AIO - Americans for Indian Opportunity. She is the wife of former Oklahoma Senator, Fred R. Harris.

  Roberta Jamieson  - Former Chief of the Six Nations Reserve of the Grand River; now CEO of the National Aboriginal Achievement Foundation, First Canadian Native woman to earn a law degree. First Native woman to be appointed Ontario's Ombudsman (held the job for ten years); lauded for developing and promoting non-adversarial methods of conflict resolution. She now heads up the Aboriginal Achievement Foundation.

Emily Pauline Johnson, Mohawk, Poetess - Born in 1861 at the Six Nations Reservation near Brantford, ON, Pauline Johnson (“Tekahionwake” or “Double Wampum) was the daughter of George Henry Johnson, Mohawk Chief of this great Iroquois tract. Her British-born mother, Emily Howells, was a second cousin of the famous American novelist, William Dean Howells. Her most famous work, Flint and Feather, was published in 1912. Others followed, including Legends of Vancouver (1911) and a collection of short stories, The Shagganappi (1913). Pauline Johnson was a cultural ambassador, a link between an ancient, Native Canada and a modern, largely European community. She knew and could represent both. Bringing two very different but strong-rooted cultures into closer contact and understanding, she was a powerful literary influence.

Princess Victoria Ka'iulani   (October 16, 1875-March 6, 1899-23 years of age). Princess Victoria Kawekiu Lunalilo Kalaninuiahilapalapa Ka'iulani Cleghorn, Crown Princess of Hawaii was heir to the throne of the Kingdom of Hawaii and held the title of crown princess. She became known throughout the world for her intelligence, beauty and determination. During the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893,  she spearheaded a campaign to restore the monarchy by speaking before the United States Congress and pleading with US Presidents Benjamin Harrison and later Grover Cleveland. Her life story grew to legendary proportions after her untimely death.

Kenojuak (Ashevak) is generally regarded as Canada's foremost Inuit artist. Since her first print appeared in a 1959 collection, she has established an international reputation; her work has been featured in exhibitions throughout Canada, the United States, and Europe. Although most widely renowned for her prints, two of which have appeared on Canadian postage stamps, Kenojuak has worked in a variety of two- and three-dimensional media, including sewing, sculptures, copperplate engravings, paintings and drawings. She was among the first group of Canadians to receive the prestigious Order Canada Medal of Service, an award honoring achievements in all fields of Canadian life. Elected into the Royal Canadian Academy in 1974, Kenojuak has also been awarded numerous commissions, including the mural for the 1970 World's Fair.

Lili'uokalani  (Lydia Kamaka'eha Paki, September 2, 1838 - November 11, 1917) Hawaii's last Queen. She had no children and so her heiress for awhile was her niece Victoria Ka'iulani (1875–1899), although Ka'iulani predeceased her. Lili'uokalani had quite a memorable life but was no match for the powerful political interests of the United States in the region. She saw it as her mission to preserve the islands for her Native subjects.  In 1898, however, the islands were annexed to the United States and she was forced to give up her throne. She gave it the old College try, however.

Sandra Lovelace, (Maliseet, Activist., born 1947). Sandra Lovelace was born on the Tobique Reserve in New Brunswick in 1947. In 1970 she married American Airman Bernie Lovelace and moved with him to California. When her marriage ended a few years later, Lovelace and her children returned to the Tobique Reserve and found they were denied housing, education and health care provided to those with status under Canada's Indian Act. It took her nearly ten years to have her status restored. Lovelace took her case to the Human Rights Committee of the United Nations. The Committee acted slowly, the Canadian government acted slowly. In August 14, 1979 the Committee asked for more information and allowed the Canadian government to defend it actions. The Canadian government claimed that it would like to change the law, but did not feel it could without the agreement of First Nations people, who were divided on the issue. Ultimately she was successful which shows how one person can correct an injustice and change the law of a nation. Awarded the Order of Canada in 1992 she now sits in the  Senate as a member of the Liberal Party of Canada.

 Wilma Mankiller The first woman in modern history to lead a major Native American tribe: the Cherokee, second largest tribe in the US. She was responsible for 137,900 people and a $70 million dollar budget. Mankiller has brought about important strides for the Cherokee, including improved health care, education, utilities management and tribal government. Future plans call for attracting higher-paying industry to the area, improving adult literacy, supporting women returning to school and more. Mankiller also lives in the larger world, active in civil rights matters, lobbying the federal government and supporting women's activities and issues. In 1998, she was honored with a Distinguished Service Award.

Edith Anderson Monture, Six Nations of the Grand. World War 1 Army Nurse. In 1917, 27-year-old Anderson and 19 other nurses, 14 of whom were also Canadian, joined the U.S. Medical Corps. Within months, they were in Vittel, France, at Buffalo Base Hospital. She spent most of her time at the hospital, treating soldiers who had been shot or gassed. Upon return to Canada she lived out her long life on the Six Nations reserve and died when she was in her 90's.

Nahnebahwequay ('Upright Woman' - Catherine Sutton) - Mississauga. She lost her status as a Native when she married William Sutton. Although she travelled to England in 1860, and spoke directly to Queen Victoria, it was more than one hundred years later that Native women in Canada would achieve the rights Nahnebahwequay sought. 

First Lieutenant Jujlia (Nashanany) Reeves, (left). Member of the Potawatomi Tribe of Crandon, Wisconsin. She joined the Army Nurse Corps in 1942 and was assigned to one of the first medical units shipped to the Pacific. The 52nd Evacuation hospital unit was sent to New Caledonia before its members had even received their army uniforms. Julia was assigned temporary duty aboard the ship. The following year, she was transferred to the 23rd Station hospital in Norwich, England, where she was stationed during the invasion of Normandy. She remained in Norwich through V-J Day, returning shortly afterward to the United States. During the Korean War, Julia mobilized with the 804th Station Hospital.

Private Minnie Spotted Wolf  of Heart Butte, Montana, enlisted in the Marine Corps Woman's Reserve in July 1943. She was the first female American Native to enroll in the Corps. Minnie had worked on her father's ranch doing such chores as cutting fence posts, driving a two-ton truck and breaking horses. Her comment on Marine boot camp, Hard but not too hard.

Helen Betty Osborne  In 1971, the nineteen-year old Cree student was abducted,  raped and murdered in La Pas, Manitoba. Despite knowing the truth, townspeople refused to to help. Four young local white men were eventually implicated in her death:  Dwayne Archie Johnston, James Robert Paul Houghton, Lee Scott Colgan and Norman Bernard Manger. It was not until December 1987, sixteen years after her death, that any of them were convicted of the crime, and then only Johnston was convicted, as Houghton had been acquitted, Colgan had received immunity for testifying against Houghton and Johnston, and Manger had never been charged. The Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission conducted an investigation into concerns surrounding the length of time involved in resolving the case. The Commission concluded that the most significant factor prolonging the case was racism.

Wanamaker Peratrovich was born July 4, 1911, in Petersburg, Alaska. Her Tlingit name was Kaaxgal.aat. She was of the Lukaax.adi clan. Elizabeth married Roy Peratrovich of Klawock on December 15, 1931, in Bellingham, Washington.  On moving back to Juneau, they were astonished to discover signs in business establishments revealing blatant discrimination against Alaska's Native people. With the help of then Governor Ernest Gruening and Congressional Representative Anthony J. Dimond, legislation was sponsored and introduced in the Legislature in 1943. However, the "Equal Rights" Bill did not pass until the next legislative session in 1945. As Grand Camp President of the Alaska Native Sisterhood, Elizabeth provided the crucial testimony that cultivated passage of the Anti Discrimination Bill. It was her response when questioned by the Senate -- Will the equal rights bill eliminate discrimin