INTRODUCTION

Without a written language, traditional culture and customs were handed down using the Oral Narrative. It provided social, cultural and historical contexts, and acted as a social cohesive for the tribe. In other words, the narratives  constituted the cultural grounding of Indigenous people.

Cultural Guardians were usually Elders or Spirit Doctors who carried the history and knowledge of their people. They were highly revered for the simple reason that it was assumed that with age came wisdom and experience. Children were taught gently about their Nation's traditional knowledge. Hearing the words from an Elder who told it with solemnity and dignity added weight to the importance of tribal knowledge.

In other words, the Oral Narrative was a highly developed, sophisticated medium supported by ages old teachings and explanations that were based on fact, observation, oral claims and contracts (in front of witnesses), and a complex set of social and cultural customs for dealing with both the sacred and the supernatural. There was no distinction between these two words because everything was viewed as a vast continuum. Both words exited in "real time" and in a conscious state of existence. Every living being was a member of one large family: the four elements (earth, air, fire water), plants, animals, and human worlds co-existed in perfect harmony with all other living beings, and all were considered human (i.e. Standing People (trees), Stone People, etc.)

Much later, after European contact, science and technology would explain a lot of the workings of Mother Earth, why the tides came in twice a day, why the world was both light and dark, the origins of the star nation, etc.  In the time of the Ancestors, however, it was the rich imaginations of the storytellers who explained the relations of humans to their natural and supernatural environments.  What is most interesting, is the fact that their explanations were not that far removed from the scientific ones.

Indigenous oral narratives defy simply classification. "Myth" seems to be a popular category, but it is incorrect. Myth, by definition means the stories are not real, fictitious themes in other words, that included imaginary persons or things that were spoken of as though they existed.

Indigenous story themes did exist and in real time, albeit sometimes in an altered or supernatural stated. Narratives also passed down important claims and entitlements that included territory, crests, clans, names. If labels are to be applied 'Lore' is probably closer because it invokes a teaching, or the act of being taught by someone who has knowledge of a particular subject of a traditional nature. Please lose the preface "FOLK". We are talking about a noble people whose rich, passionate, "Stand alone" history, culture and social organizations are grounded in a certain set of non-folksy, deep knowledge and values!

ORAL NARRATIVE CONT'D

Just like any human, Native people were eager to understand their place in the cosmos and in the long winter months the storytellers obliged by weaving magical tales. Spectacular stories are found all across Turtle Island. On the Northwest coast however, coupled with the great dance dramas which were an integral part of the Yaawk (Feast) ceremonies my Ancestors were kept enthralled with grand tables about the varied relationships between humans/animals and humans/cosmos, they laughed and cried with Culture Hero Raven as he sought to bring order to the world.  Stories and dramas abounded through the Sun Dance ceremonies of the northern Great Plains (Blackfoot, Peigan, Blood, Sarcee); the Central and Eastern Woodlands (Ojibwa, Cree, Huron, Haudenosaunee); Inuit; the wondrous stories of the Mi'Kmaq and other maritime tribes.

MYTH OR LORE?

Indigenous narratives defy simple classification. 'Myth' seems to be a popular category, but it is incorrect. Myth, by definition means the stories are not real because they refer to fictitious themes that include imaginary persons or things that were spoken of as though they existed.

For the Ancestors, all beings whether they were physically real or from the visions of the Old Ones did exist, and in real time, albeit sometimes in an altered or supernatural state.  The oral narrative also passed down important claims and entitlements - territory, crests, clans, names.  

If labels are to be applied, 'Lore' is probably closer because it invokes a teaching, or the act of being taught by someone who has knowledge of a particular group or subject matter of a traditional nature.  But lose the preface word "Folk"!! We are talking about a noble people whose rich, passionate 'stand alone' history, culture and social organizations are grounded in a certain set of non-folksy deep knowledge and values!

A SINGLE DEITY OR SUPREME BEING?

Unlike the Christian concept of a single, male God responsible for the creation of the world, Indigenous people, as a general rule, did not believe in a single supreme, autonomous, and eternal being who was all-powerful and established the conditions under which all living things would live.

To believe this was to disbelieve that the secular and supernatural worlds were inter-connected cohesive spheres of activity in which all living beings played an equal role.  To the Tsimshian, for example, there are no Creation stories per se because it was assumed the world was always there. There are however, a myriad of Raven stories. Raven is not a Creator figure, but a Culture Hero responsible for bringing order to a pre-existing world that was in chaos.  Raven brought food, light, fixed the tides, brought supernatural beings under control, gave humans their first conscious thought.

For many tribes, there was no supreme puppeteer directing the action; each living being had its own gifts and talents, and as long as everyone knew their place and did their job, the world hummed in unison for another day.  In other words, Indigenous people did not see themselves as superior to the rest of the natural world - everyone was thought of as equal, intelligent, self-directed and able to communicate their gifts and talents for the greater good of the whole.

Such kinship, respect, dignity, celebration and honour was accorded to all because it was believed everyone came from a common beginning. This is why Indigenous people usually end with the words 'all my relations'.

"We must broaden our way of thinking so that it recognizes the world as one human family, We are all children of one blood. It can be no other way, for there is a central source of humanity where all living beings were created." (Gandoox, Tsimshian Elder, my Mom).

In post-European contact some tribes, under the pressure of Christian dogmatism, conceded a "God position".  A Creator/Great Spirit/Great Mystery figure was adopted. An important distinction is the fact that Indigenous version was NON-GENDERED. It was a powerful deity made up of equal parts of female and male. Over time, unfortunately, Indigenous people became lazy and simply started referring to this entity as 'he' instead of Creator, Great Mystery or Great Spirit. It's a shame and wrong and buys into the whole male domination scenario. Thunderbird does not go there!

MAIN CATEGORIES OF THE INDIGENOUS ORAL NARRATIVE

The Creation of the World can be loosely categorized under two main headings:

EARTH-DIVER STORIES (CREATION STORIES) -  Like all the earth's people, my Ancestors were no different in wanting to understand their origins. Where did they come from? Who sent them? How did they emerge in their present form on the earth. Many stories tell of a great flood that covered the earth thereby setting the stage for the magical creation of the earth, the origins of the cosmos and the interrelations of its elements.

Here the Earth Diver myth of the Eastern Woodlands, Northern Plains, for example, has either Great Spirit or the Transformer (Culture Hero) diving or ordering other animals to dive into the primeval water to bring up mud, out of which the Earth would be fashioned. There is a Lakhota story in which the Creating Power "sings" a great flood into existence in order to destroy an unsatisfactory first creation; then, when a turtle brings mud back from the depths of the waters, the Creating Power "sings" an entire new world into existence.  Music, thus, creates as well as destroys.

There is also the bogus explanation that Turtle Island's Native people came across a land bridge known as Berengia (Bering Strait); wherein it sells books and satisfies the average academic's driving need for empirical evidence, there is not a thread of truth to it.

"There is a commonly held belief that thousand of years ago as the world today counts time, Mongolian nomads cross a land bridge to enter the western hemisphere, and became the people known as the American Indians. The truth of course, is that Raven found our forefathers in a clam shell on the beach at Naikun. At his bidding they entered the world peopled by birds, beasts, and creatures of great power....at least that's a little bit of the truth."
(Bill Reid, Haida Artist)

EMERGENCE STORIES - For many other Native tribes, people did not originate in an already created world (like the Garden of Eden), but, rather, they emerged from the womb of the Earth Mother; they were called out into the daylight of their Sun Father. Most widely developed among agricultural peoples, the Emergence story narrates the original  passage from darkness to light, from chaos to order, and from undetermined to distinctly human form. The dynamic of evolution—that life evolves from one form to another—serves as a fundamental metaphor for transformations of all kinds.  

Examples from the Pacific Northwest Coast:

• Tsimshian -  Raven burst from the mountains, carrying with him the first conscious thought for humans and organized the world from his imagination, largesse, cunning and his compassionate desire to help the weak two-leggeds.  He temporarily blinded the selfish old woman who controlled the tides, until she agreed that they could go in and out twice a day; He stole the sun from Grandfather Sky and threw up into the heavens so that its golden light burned up most of the ghost people who were controlling the world.

•  Chinook - believed they were created from the eggs of the Thunderbird.  A key character is an old giantess whose advice wasn't headed by Old Man South Wind. 

• Haida - One day, long ago, Raven was on a desolate beach. Alone, he needed company and came upon a half-open clamshell. When he examined the shell, he saw tiny people inside. The people were shy and slowly peeked out of the shell. "Come out! Come out!" called Raven. The tiny beings opened the shell and climbed onto the sandy earth. These were the first Haida. There is a huge, wondrous carving by the late, great Haida Artist Bill Reid depicting Raven and the First Humans.

• Lakhota There was another world before this one, but the people were disobedient. Great Spirit was not happy and decided to make a new world. Great Spirit sang many songs that brought heavy rain. By the time the four song was sung the rain was so heavy it split apart the world and everyone drowned. Only Kangi (Crow) survived asking Great Spirit to make a new home. It was time. From a giant pipe bag, animals and birds emerged. Four animals were selection to go below the great waters and retrieve a bit of earth - Loon, Ptan (Otter), Cápa (Beaver) all tried but were unsuccessful. It was Kèya's (turtle) turn. He was gone a long time, and everyone was convinced that Turtle had drowned. Eventually Turtle returned, his feet, claws and the cracks between the upper and lower shells were full of mud. Singing, Great Spirit shaped the earth in the the form of a turtle to honour its bravery.

CULTURE HEROES AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE WORLD

Frequently, but not always, the stories represent the Cultural Hero, as primarily a comical character who engages in shape-shifting buffoonery while stealing light, fire, water, food, animals and even humans; this character often lost them or set them loose to create havoc in the world. (Raven among the Nuxult, Tsimshian, Haida, Hare; Nanabush among the Anishinaabe; Frog in the Columbian Plateau; Coyote among the Blackfoot).

This is a very superficial and not very flattering picture of a much loved, and very important figure in the Indigenous oral narrative. The stories are legendary about Culture Hero, Raven and his ability to shift shapes in order to help organize the world. He shifted back and forth between human and raven.   Shapeshifting was not random, it was always done with a purpose and was the responsibility of the Culture Heroes. Some examples of the culture heroes:  Glooscap (Mi'kmaq), Wisikawejak (Cree), Nanabozho (Ojibwa), Iktomi (Spider), Plains, Napi (Blackfood), Michabo (Algonquin)

Here is an excerpt from my copyrighted high school textbook: Wisdom of the Ages: A Cultural, Spiritual & Historical Look at Canada's Original People.

"Culture hero’s (Transformers) are beloved, magical, compassionate and practical figures (i.e. Pacific Northwest Coast Raven) that helped change the external (physical) form of the world as well as the inner nature of it using often miraculous means to do so. In North America, Transformer is characteristically portrayed as a figure that was capable of traveling back and forth between the secular and supernatural worlds because at the time only a thin veil of mist separated the two. The magic of transformer was its catalytic magic to change the world. He had a perfectly balanced left and right brain to solve problems and the ability to utilize a variety of human traits in the quest to settle the world. For example, logic, creativity, patience, impatience, honesty, dishonesty, love, hate, joy, sadness, greed, seriousness and humor were all employed in varying degrees depending on the situation. Many Creation stories revolve around the ability of Transformer to use these gifts to overcome complications quickly, and with a high degree of shapeshifting energy, physical agility, mental discipline, good humour and for the most part good intent. Very human! Transformer simply did what needed to be done and what had to be done. In other words, there was no difference between need and duty when good intention was the goal.

As a Culture Hero, he often appears as an extraordinary human (i.e. Glooskap) who possesses supernatural powers, and who brings the world into its present form by heroic feats. In the Columbian Plateau and Great Plains, there are said to be two Transformers (more precisely, a Transformer and a companion who is a brother, sister or other relative). They try to outdo each other in feats of strength, ability or cunning that result in the formation of the world as it now exists. Raven of the northwest coast has stories of a brother associated with him as well, known as the Lazy One, who is more likely to follow along and let his brother do all the work and then try to steal his ideas."

In other words, A Culture Hero is either a shape-shifting animal or supernatural figure with human traits. There are literally hundreds of them from all across North America. They are credited with pretty much all of Indigenous culture from how to dig a well, to bringing fire, humans, games, weaving, existence of light, making tools, creating arrowheads, creation of food, trees, plants, grasses, rituals and ceremonies. It is endless.  Shapeshifting was not permanent, it was simply a way for the Culture Heroes to get the job they were involved at the time done.

Culture Hero - In these stories, the Transformer appears as a extraordinary human who possesses supernatural powers, and who brings the world into its present form by heroic feats. The events in these stories account for the origin of distinctive cultural beliefs, values and practices - (Raven (Pacific Northwest Coast; Nanabush (Ojibwe); Glooscap of the Mi’Kmaq, Maliseet, Abenaki), Ptesan Wi (White Buffalo Calf Woman,(Lakhota), Gaqka or Crow went to the south and, listening to the earth, learned all the stories, and brought back storytelling to the Seneca.  These figures were not 'Creator' figures, but rather responsible for bringing order to the world.

MORE THEMES AND CATEGORIES

Many stories tell the origin of the Sun, Moon and Stars. There is usually a tension between the heavenly bodies; e.g., the cool moon by night is said to be necessary to counteract the burning of the Earth and the killing of people by the heat of the sun in the day. An Inuit story tells of the sun and moon as brother and sister, but since they have engaged in incest in their human lives the are doomed to eternal separation. Another humorous telling, has Grandfather Sun and Grandmother Moon in perfect harmony with each other for the simple reason that they never see each other - ah! a lasting relationship!

• INSTITUTIONAL STORIES: Origins of religious institutions, such as the Sun Dance (Northern Plains), sacred Medicine Bundles (Blackfoot, Cree, Ojibwa, Iroquois); Winter Ceremonies (Coast Salish, Nuu-Cha-Nulth; Green Corn Ceremonial (Haudenosaunne False Face and Corn Husk Societies.)

• ORPHEUS STORIES: Culture Hero makes a perilous journey to the realm of the dead to bring back a deceased loved one. Stories often contain detailed characterizations of the land of the dead, and are important to an understanding of such diverse phenomena as the Plains Ghost Dance, concepts of the soul and many aspects of the Spirit Doctor. Such stories are prominent in the Eastern Woodlands (Huron, Ojibwa, Montagnais-Naskapi, Iroquois, Ottawa); the Northwest coast (Salish, Kwakwaka'wakw, Nuu-cha-nulth, Haida, Tsimshian, Tlingit); the Columbia Plateau (Thompson, Okanagan, Carrier, Salish, Interior).

• RITUAL STORIES: Detailed texts for the performance of ceremonials and rituals by which cosmic order is dramatically represented, Sun Dance, (Plains); Potlatch,( Pacific Northwest coast); Midewiwin ritual (Ojibwa). Fertility, birth, initiation and death rites are often clearly stipulated in stories. Spiritual performances may also be described. Young men at puberty make extended stays in remote areas to fast, pray and ‘cry’ for a vision in order to acquire guardian spirits. Such an encounter would ensure prosperity, health and success in hunting and fishing, as well as prestige within the tribe.

• TRIBES AND THE CONCEPT OF TIME: Time is considered to be divided into the present and a remote ancestral period when things were different from now. The state of the profane world is brought into being by the Transformer. Concepts of the future are developed principally as they refer to the death of the individual and her afterlife. Most tribes divide the year into two seasons, the profane time (Spring/Summer when the physical needs of the tribes must be met, i.e., planting, hunting), and the supernatural world (winter) in which most ceremonials take place. The Haudenosaunee have a more complex schedule because it is based around agricultural harvest times of various food plants.

• DEATH: The world of the dead lies at a great distance from the world of the living, often beyond a great river, on islands far out at sea, or in the remote mountains or in the underworld. It can only be reached after a diffuicult journey by the dead, or a perilous one for the living (i.e. shamans, the spirit figures of the Orpheus stories).

• UNSEEN WORLD - The world of the Supernatural is believed to be circular, covered by the physical world; These levels are joined by a ‘cosmic axis’ which may be separated/connected by a thin white veil (Tsimshian), ‘world tree (Tree of Life) or a ‘rainbow bridge’ or the backbone of the worlds (The Milky Way). ‘Star Husband’ (Temogami Ojibwa); the Chan of Arrows (Tlingit) or the Stretching Tree (Chilcotin) all represent this axis that connects the seen and unseen worlds. In ceremony, columns of smoke, central house posts or the central pole of the Sun Dance lodge also represent this axis.