THE TSIMSHIAN

Introduction: Imagine what it must have been like for First Nations people to live on the Pacific Northwest Coast of British Columbia before the Great Change. Small Native villages were scattered along the rivers, bays, and inlets. The Tsimshian had survived and flourished for thousands of years in their lush and bountiful rain forest home. Every region had its own language, tradition and distinctive identity.

The Pacific Coast was abundant in natural resources which formed the basis of the traditional economy - salmon and eulachon in the rivers; herring, halibut, cod, seals, sea lions and whales in the open sea; seaweed and shellfish along the shores and on the rocks left visible by the receding tide; and, in the dense rain forests, berries, lupine roots, and the extremely important hemlock, red cedar, fir and yew trees were in abundant supply.

The wood from these trees provided strong planks for the building of the long houses. It was not left there however. The northwest coast was rife with artists, carvers, singers and dancers. The two-dimensional art form unique to the northwest coast manifested itself in the design of the houses, utensils, clothing of The People; Cedar was carved into bowls and storage boxes, some called Bentwood boxes; utensils were made for cooking and eating; The bark was pounded into soft fibers until it was the consistency of velvet, and then woven into warm blankets and clothing. Beautifully designed Chilkat blankets and leggings woven from goat hair were prized possessions. These were practical items but there was not reason for them not to be beautiful.

Little in the way of animal hide was worn for it did not fair well in the humid and rainy weather of the northern coast. The cedar woven bark capes and hats kept the rain at bay. For the most part, however, in the spring and summer men wore nothing at all, and the women wore cedar that was draped over one shoulder and bound at the waist. Shoes, moccasins were a rarity. Barefoot was the preferred way to go which explains why even to this day, despite her lengthy urban upbringing, Thunderbird has trouble keeping shoes on her feet!

The Ancestors were not nomadic peoples having access to a wide spectrum of food. Although there were winter camps, travel was not excessively long and the northern peoples had plenty of opportunity to spend their time creating elaborate social and political hierarchical structures supported by lavish ceremonials (see Feast below).

TSIMSHIAN AND CLAN SYSTEM

Tsimshian in Sm'algyax means "People Inside the Skeena River."
Tsimshian also refer to themselves as "The Originals"

OWNERSHIP

Ownership of territory, clans, crests held by kinship groups sharing a name and a tradition of descent from a common ancestor.

Great importance placed on inherited rank and privileges. Chiefs and nobles held high-ranking names (i.e., Thunderbird) and controlled access to group-held territory and rights.

Commoners who lacked inherited claims to titles shared in group’s greater prestige and were an essential labor source; Slaves usually captured in war.

social organization

Tsimshian society is organized in terms of (a) tribes, (b) houses, (c) clans. It is a complicated matrilineal system of Phratries, an anthropoligical term meaning four equal subdivisions (or clans) within a tribal group.

The Tsimshian consist of fourteen tribes, called galts'its'ap. The Kitasso, Gitga’ata, Kitkatla, Kitsumkalum, Kitselas, Gilusts’aaw (Thunderbird's tribe), Ginadoiks, Gispaxlo’ots, Gitando, Gitlaan, Gits’iss, Ginaxangiik,Gitwilgyoots, Gitzaxlaal.

Prior to European contact, the clan system was strictly administered. For example, Killer Whale could not marry a Wolf because both clans were in the same half of the phratry; it was considered incest (called endogamy). Most Indigenous people practiced Exogamy (marrying outside the moiety/phratry/clan).

The Tsimshian social hierarchy is considered to be the most complicated on the northwest coast. Royal women were a powerful presence and were often Chieftenesses, Spirit Doctors, later Negotiators with the Europeans.

The clans were based on supernatural and other spiritual beings in the form of birds and animals were considered to be the ancient ancestors of the Tsimshian, and as a result the origin of their clans. These categories were elaborated into a threefold system of Crests, Wonders (Naxnox) and Privileges (Halaayt):

Crests: Represents a covenant with the spirit world and includes the right to own certain land, names, heraldic designs, and important preogatives. In traditional law, this right was ‘paid for’ with a life. If an animal killed an Ancestor in a story, then the descendants of that person could use the image as a crest. Crests were related to the tradition of a ‘shining heaven’ or ‘glistening light’.

Wonders: Naxnox are supernatural beings in their own right (See Supernatural below). To distinguish naxnox from the primary expression of Halait, the elaborate masked dance dramas were called ‘wonders’ in cultural recognition of Naxnox. The mask, in other words, is naxnox.

The ceremonies were a time in which the supernatural world also known as Halaayt (see below) melded with the Tsimshian. It was a time to appease the powers of nature and to give thanks for the bounty they enjoyed. Physical expression was given to this relationship through the dances and wearing of masks, also known as naxnox. To be clear, Halaayt is the spiritual world, the supernatural and sacred aspects of Tsimshian beliefs. Halaayt channels the power of the person expressing it. Naxnox is the applied part. In other words in order to express spiritual power, the individual required particular items such as drums, shakers, masks, horns, crystals and so on to help with contacting and travelling in one of the other worlds.

There is a separation in that the full meaning of naxnox includes immortal beings, while ‘wonder’ refers to the cultural recognition of it. (See Beliefs below)

Privileges: Was a means of identifying members of the elite. There were four orders of the Secret Society and a royal or noble child was initiated into one of them at an early age. The following chart based on one taken from Jay Miller's, book, Tsimshian Culture: A Light Through The Ages gives a clearer picture of how it all worked.

MATRIARCHAL
↓

MAIN CLANS: Gisbutwada, Blackfish (Orca), Laxgibuu, Wolf,
Ganhada, Raven, Laxgiik, Eagle
↓

PATRIARCHAL
↓
__________________________________

↓ ↓
HALAAYT – PRIVILEGES NAXNOX – WONDERS

          All manifestations of supernatural                          Physical manifestation of
          practiced only by royalty and nobles                       Halaayt (Earth, Forest, Sky, Cave)
           who were members of Secret Societies

See more on beliefs below

SECRET SOCIETIES

Tsimshian: Mila (Dancers), Nulim (Dog Eaters), Ludzista (Destroyers), and Xgyedmhalait (Cannibals). Mila and Nulim were secret societies with initiated members; Destroyers and Cannibals were the personal privileges of high chiefs and, as such, had no order associations. Unlike naxnox, halait was the preserve of the elite with only royalty and nobility as members in all four orders. Royal children were initiated during winter, Cannibals reserved for the greatest chiefs who bore halait names linking them with the Chief of Heaven or Sun Chief, the eminent being of the Tsimshian cosmos.

HAIDA AND TLINGIT CLAN SYSTEM

A matrilineal system of Moities (Two equal subdivisions of a tribe) Haida moities were the Raven and the Eagle. Each was divided into a large number of clans (main ones included: Raven, Eagle, Frog, Beaver, and Bear), which were identified within local groups; that is, one or several of these clans formed a village, and the clans found in the village were not, originally, found elsewhere.

Note: Tlingit Raven (corresponds to Haida Raven and Tsimshian Raven), the Wolf (south) (corresponds to Haida Eagle and Tsimshian Wolf), and the Eagle (north) (corresponds to Haida Eagle and Tsimshian Eagle).

MARRIAGES among nobles were often arranged for political purposes.

TSIMSHIAN BELIEFs
the most complex system on the northwest coast

The two worlds were separated by only a thin veil, and supernatural beings could pass back and forth with ease.

Of all the northern coastal people, the Tsimshian had the most complex social, spiritual and political structure. One of the main reasons was the amount of idle time there was in which to create involved cultural systems. As noted earlier, the area in which they lived was lush and forested, food plentiful, travel light. Therefore, over time, much effort was put into creating a hierarchy of complicated clan systems and secret societies that consisted of dzapk (as noted earlier, represented by the wearing of a woven hat), wonders, privileges and a ‘real time’ relationship with the spirit world also known as halaayt. The winter ceremonies in which halaayt were celebrated were known as naxnox. It is also important to note that the Tsimshian did not recognize a supreme being. They assumed that heaven already existed in the form of goypax (light).

Light (goypax) from: Tsimshian Culture: A Light Through The Ages, Jay Miller- created Tsimshian Culture when Raven brought it into the world with a blinding flash. Light is also called Heaven, Sky Chief or the Sun.

"Aboriginal religion focused on the crucial concept of Haleyt (Halait) augmented by that of Naxnox." (Keep reading)

Halaayt channels the power of the person expressing it. A physical representation of it would be the wearing of a carved frontlet, often inlaid with abalone shell and worn over the forehead. Naxnox is the applied part of the process. In other words, in order to express spiritual power, the individual required particular items such as drums, shakers, masks, horns, rock crystals and so on to help with contacting and travelling in one of the other worlds. Masks were the main representation of Naxnox. The person(s) most often gifted with the power to traverse the worlds were the Spirit Doctors, either male or female. The word ‘Shaman’ does not exist in Sm’algyax.’ Halaayt is the correct term. To simplify, the frontlet was the intermediary between the hat and the mask. With Halaayt comes Privileges, with Naxnox comes Wonders. The following chart illustrates what I mean.

GOYPAX (LIGHT, HEAVEN)

MATRIARCHAL
↓
CLANS
Gisbutwada (Blackfish), Laxgibuu (Wolf),
Ganhada, (Raven), Laxgiik (Eagle)

CRESTS
(Woven Hat & Button Blanket))

E.g., Thunderbird, Grizzly Bear, Blackfish

PATRIARCHAL
___________________________________________________________

HALAAYT (Frontlets)
Supernatural, Spirit World and Spirit Doctors

PRIVILEGES
Member of Royalty or Nobility permitted to practice Halaayt

NAXNOX
Primordial Spirits (Culture Hero Raven, Thunderbird, Blackfish, Wolf, Eagle)

WONDERS (Masks)
Dramatization of Naxnox by Humans recognizing the right of the primordial spirits to act on their ehalf.

SECRET SOCIETIES:
Mila (Dancers), Nulim (Dogeaters), Ludzista (Destroyers), Xgyedmhalait (Cannibals)

Wherein culture hero’s such as Raven fall into the naxnox category, Spirit Doctors are considered to be an integral and natural part of the supernatural world. As a result, they are also called halaayt. The Tsimshian were not cannibals. It was abhorrent to them. The Cannibal society taught The Originals that if their desire to kill overcame their reason then they would suffer terrible calamities throughout the rest of their lives.

With the arrival of the Europeans, such beliefs and practices were decried as pagan and uncivilized. Eventually, they were outlawed (1884) and the Tsimshian were relentlessly turned away from their spiritual practices. Missionaries William Duncan, Thomas Crosby and Reverend Collison all were instrumental in turning the Tsimshian into devout Christians, In fact these men were quite shameless in their constant attacks on the Tsimshian referring constantly to the fact that their beliefs were the scourge of the universe, uncivilized and in league with Satan. In time the Tsimshian came to reject their spiritual heritage. "Even now with a reawakened appreciation of their past greatness, the accepted translation of the word "swansk" (shaman, Indian Doctor) is "witch doctor" or "devil worker." (J. Miller) It is a battle that still quietly rages today.

THE WAY IT WAS

General: Dominating concept was that the bodies of men, animals, and plants were the houses, canoes or shells in which souls lived and these souls had a great range of action outside their normal habitat.

Living a good life depended on having good relations with the spiritual world - much time and effort was placed on honouring the spirits, crests of both self and family. There were special rigid rituals that were undertaken to ensure good relations. An individual would appeal to the spirits through sexual restraint, sweat baths, fasting and often purging the system with special teas.

Nonetheless the Tsimshian were also practical enough to know that appealing to the spirits was a bit of a crap shoot and therefore acknowledged that luck played a large part.

Main belief was a great concern with the integration of past, present and the future. Beliefs regarding the past and the origin of the world were largely speculative and generally formulated from the vivid imaginations of the storytellers. The future was also speculative and related particularly to the persistence of personality after death. The supernatural world was the greatest importance since it influenced daily life. Thunderbird produced lightening and thunder; creek-women were deities from each stream that controlled the water and the fish in it.

Haida referred to the supreme being as the Power of the Shining Heavens. Humans did not have direct contact with the Great Mystery but dealt through lesser gods.

To the Tsimshian, creation of the world was assumed, however, it was in chaos, which required a Transformation (culture hero) figure such as Raven to organize the world into a cohesive format which he gleefully undertook using all manner of subterfuge to accomplish the task. Raven is also referred to as a "Trickster" which, again is a post-European insult probably borne from the closed minds of the missionaries who were appalled at the thought that powerful Raven could be thought of on the same level as Jesus Christ, therefore the alternative, a child of Satan was the only recourse.

Tribes believed in the sanctity of harmonious connections to both the seen and unseen world. There was a time long ago, when all living beings spoke in only one language; there was never any confusion as to the understanding or intent of one group towards another. As well, only a thin veil separated the two worlds, and people, particularly Spirit Doctors, could move back and forth with ease; Animals and birds could take on human form, and vice versa.

Halaayt: The notion of 'Power' is derived from close interaction betweedn the secular and supernatural worlds. It was within the supernatural world that all resources and spirit resided.Refers to controlled supernatural power expressed through simulations of a desired state. Halait loosely translated means ‘shaman or shamanic power’, and is the manifestation of supernatural potency, with naxnox as its physical source. In other words, Halait refers to any shamanic or ritual manifestation of power as well as the ritual event within which an ‘elevated’ manifestation occurs. Halait had continuous, legitimate usage.

Naxnox: (pronounced nack-nock). Totem poles were carved from cedar logs; beautiful cedar masks of animal spirits were carved and used in the Naxnox dance dramas performed at the potlatches. Naxnox loosely translated means an unwieldy supernatural power associated with chiefly might, antisocial acts, and distinctive tendencies intended to instill fear into the onlookers. For example: Gilax Naxnox was a spirit who came into the town during the day and put out everyone’s fires. Main difference to Halait, that in order to be in the world, naxnox must have physical embodiment, for example crests or souls. The Masks at the dance drama provided direct representation of the crests which were derived from naxnox and ancestors. Naxnox is the personification of power or that which is manifested in Halait. Naxnox restricted in usage to the masked performances at a potlatch.

Anyone going out into nature to commune with spirits was said to being seeking his or her naxnox. Normally, naxnox is inherited by only one person and the name received had to be validated with a potlatch that had ritual dramatization of the event. The dramatization included the wearing of elaborate masks which were seen as symbols of great power.

Marjorie Halpin, for example, described naxnox naming system as:

"...a metaphorical elaboration on the theme of death. The various physical infirmities represented by naxnox names - old age, lameness, deafness, smallpox, etc. were metaphors of physical death. The various cultural infirmities [such as] selfishness, drunkenness, insanity, were metaphors of on-sense or meaninglessness; that is, cultural death....What the Tsimshian collectively overcame was death."

The concepts of Halaayt and Naxnox were magical and inspirational because they called on all the senses and engaged the whole brain. The left brain functions of logic, spoken word and rational thought were balanced by the right brain strengths of creativity, intuition, adawx, emotion and visualisation. The dance of life could only function in a harmonious way if halaayt and naxnox melded seamlessly within the supernatural and secular worlds both of which contained vital memories. In other words, adawx (storytelling) and incumbent ceremonies echoed the voices of the Ancestors, and as The Originals walked in the physical world they remembered their lives and gatgyet.

European Contact: One meeting was described as follows: When a sea monster approached, covered with hairy beings (Europeans), who came ashore inside a large spider (long boat with oars). The Tsimshian phrased the meeting in terms of naxnox, and the whites were shiftless drifters associated with ghosts, whose bones were bleached driftwood.

All of the above was outlawed by the Canadian Government in 1885 and not revived until part of the Indian Act was repealed in 1951. The main reason that B.C. cultures remain as intact as they are is because of those brave souls who defied the law and continued to practice their traditional ways in secret.

In modern times, some tribes such as the Gitksan usually interpreted naxnox as ‘power’ or ‘powers’; the Tsimshian prefer ‘Wonder’ or ‘Wonders’, and that is further broken down: naxnox were supernatural spirits and Wonders were the human representations.

Post-European contact ‘Christian’ Tsimshian were adamant about not acknowledging the existence of the old ways. Thunderbird's Grandmother was one such person. Modern Christian Tsimshian's continue to dismiss naxnox as a passing fancy and the masks simply as fetishes to be worn for the tourist trade. In the past, the masks and the dance dramas were symbols of a powerful people and belief in the connections between the seen and unseen worlds. Even so, many Tsimshian carry quite a bit of superstition surrounding the magic of naxnox and even in this modern day and age, they are nervous about invoking the power of the ancestors. It’s a shame really.

SPIRIT DOCTORS

By Shannon Thunderbird and Kate Dickson
(copyrighted)

Time has not always been kind to the Indigenous Spirit Doctor; terms such as 'witch doctor' or the 'Devil's servant' have frequently been used to describe the nature and responsibilities of this very special and important person. The correct term ‘Spirit Doctor’ in lieu of the term ‘Shaman’ is being used. 'Shaman' is a term that came from central Asia and as a result there is no word in any Native language for the word ‘Shaman’.

There are Spirit Doctors who do not act in the best interests of the people. As in all situations in life, both the positive and negative occur. A negative Spirit Doctor (Sorcerer) is someone who, like many others, does not have, (a) full understanding of his role, (b) does have a full understanding but has become corrupted with his powers, or (c) is 'burned out' after a number of years carrying heavy responsibilities. Whatever the case, they have been known to reap incredible damage and it is these people who have earned, for all Spirit Doctors, the labels of witch doctor, devil's servant, sorcerer, etc. That said, this article chooses to deal with the Spirit Doctor as a positive role model and healer as they outnumber the negative ones by a huge margin.

A Spirit Doctor subscribes to neither the aforementioned labels; indeed, h/she is more accurately described as ahealer, visionary, mystic, poet. More to the point, h/she is an intermediary between the people and the Lowerworld/Upperworld. As such, h/she is a healer first and a prophet second. A Spirit Doctor can be either male or female (referred to hereafter for single use as 'he' because Spirit Doctors are predominantly male); he has become a Spirit Doctor after much initiation and soul searching.

While a Spirit Doctor does carry a certain tabu, he does not stay secluded from the people. He is involved with everyday activities and expected to earn his way. When not directly involved in a healing capacity, he becomes a teacher for other healers and certainly the children or planning for an upcoming event. In other words, he is approachable on a variety of levels.

In Indigenous cultures, every problem is treated seriously for a group's very survival depends on healthy attitudes and healthy bodies. It is believed hat a person can become diseased or open to disease if that person's guardian spirit has left or been lost. It becomes the job of the Spirit Doctor to go in search of that spirit and bring it back, or, if it is lost, bring back another one.

How does he do this? You need to imagine a tree, its roots buried in the ground, its trunk tall and its branches and leaves in full foliage. To the Native, trees hold a great significance as roots are seen as the past, trunks are seen as the present and branches/leaves are seen as the future. In keeping with this symbol, the roots are the Lowerworld, the trunk is the journey and the branches/leaves are the Upperworld. (It should be understood that a Spirit Doctor may also choose to journey through other methods such as mentally picking a cave entrance, a waterfall, etc; however, more often than not, the tree symbol is used because the notion of the tunnel -up